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    15 December 2014, Volume 33 Issue 04
    The Place of Dali Cranium in Human Evolution
    WU Xinzhi
    2014, 33(04):  405-426. 
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    This paper presents a comprehensive comparative study between Dali cranium and other human fossils of Middle Pleistocene and those of later time.The non-metric and metrical features are classified into 9 categories as follows:
    1.The features of Dali which are similar to other Middle Pleistocene humans(MPH) and quite different from those of early modern humans(EMH).
    The brow ridges are robust and connect each other in glabellar region.
    The bregma and vertex coincide in position.
    There is angular turn on the occipital portion of mid-sagittal contour.
    The cranial wall is thick.
    The lacrimal fossa is shallow.
    The left infraorbital fissure communicates with the infratemporal fossa through a downward passage instead of a horizontal one.
    The infratemporal surface of sphenoid bone locates at a lower level than the orbital floor.
    The auricular height of Dali cranium is 102mm. It falls within the variation range (v.r.) of Homo erectus (H.e.) from Zhoukoudian (ZKD) (93.5mm~107mm)[9] and shorter than that of Kabwe (105mm) [9] and Neanderthals (103-122 mm, totally including 7 cases, the sites from which the fossils were enearthed can be checked in the references cited, similarly hereinafter) [9-10]and EMH of China (108~119 mm, including Liujiang, Lijiang, Chuandong and Upper Cave) [11-14].
    The length-height index I (ba-b/g-op) of Dali cranium is 57.1. It falls within the v.r. of Plio/Pleistocene humans of Africa (50.4~67.5, including KNM-ER1813; OH 9, KNM-ER 3733, 3883) [5, 15] and that of Dmanisi (55.4~65.4) [16]. The value of Dali is slightly higher than that of the recontructed skull of Yunxian 55.8[16], and lower than that of the reconstructed skull of H.e. from ZKD (59.9)[9] and that of Kabwe (60.2) [15] as well as that of most of MPH of Europe (58.6~69.9, including Petralona, Steinheim, Swanscombe; Ceprano; Atapuerca SH 4,5,6) [15-17] except Ehringsdorf (the index is 55.9)[15]. It is much lower than that of EMH of China (66.7~77.7, including Liujiang and Upper Cave) [11,12] and Europe (65.8~71, including 6 cases) [10].
    The length-height index II (po-b ht/g-op) of Dali is 49.6. It falls within the v.r. of that of Dmanisi (46.38~53.59[16]) and Plio/Pleistocene humans of Africa (46.6~53.3, including OH 9, KNM-ER 3733, 3883) [15]. The value of Dali is close to the lower limit of H.e. from ZKD (49.0~53.3) [9]. It is lower than that of H.e. from Hexian (50) [18] and close to the lower limit of the v.r. of MPH of Europe (51.0~65.1, including Petralona, Steinheim; Arago, Ceprano; Atapuerca SH) [15,16,17]. The index of Dali is much lower than that of EMH of China (57.1~72.5, including Liujiang, Upper Cave, Lijiang and Chuandong) [11,12,13,14] and Europe (58~62.3, including 6 cases) [10].
    Transverse cranial curvature (au-au/po-b-po) of Dali cranium is 47.2. It is lower than that of H.e.of China (47.4~54.8) [9,18,19] and is between two specimens of Pithecanthropus from Trinil ( I, 52.3 and II, 45.6) [9]. It is lower than that of Kabwe (48.3) [9] and higher than that of Petralona (44.8) [10]. The value of Dali is much higher than that of EMH of China (39.2~42.2, measured by the author on Liujiang and casts of Upper Cave) and Europe (36.5~43.6, including 3 cases)[10].
    The ratio of b-ast to occipital breadth (ast-ast) of Dali cranium is 113.9. It is within the v.r. of H.e. of China (103.5~119.8, including those of Hexian and cast of ZKD which are all measured by the author) and MPH of Europe (97.8~117.5, including Atapuerca SH, Petralona and Swanscombe) [17]as well as that of MPH of Africa (107.1~116.3, including Kabwe; Eliye Springs, Omo 2)[17, 20]. It is much lower than those in EMH of China (121.5~132.7, including those of Liujiang, Ziyang and casts of Upper Cave which are all measured by the author).
    The angle, l-i-o of Dali is 105°. It is close to the highest value of the v.r. of H.e. of China (98°~106°, those of ZKD are according to Weidenreich 1943[9]; that of Nanjing is measured by the author) and lowest value of that of MPH of Europe (107°~129.1°, including Ehringsdorf, Steinheim ; Atapuerca SH) [10, 17]. It is much lower than that of modern humans (117°~127.3°) [10].
    Angle l-op-o of Dali cranium is 98°. It equals the lowest value of the v.r. of H.e. of China (98°~108°, including ZKD and Nanjing) [16, 19],much lower than that of Petralona (106°)[16] and much lower than that of modern humans (128°~138°) [16].
    The ratio of d-d to fm: a-fm: a of Dali cranium is 22.8. It is between the values of H.e. from ZKD XII (21) and Nanjing (26)(those of ZKD and Nanjing are measured and calculated by the author) and very close to that of Kabwwe (22.6, measured by the author on cast). The value of Dali is much lower than that of Petralona(28.7) [21]and Atapuerca SH 4 and 5 (33.1 and 29.5 respectively) [17] and higher than that in EMH of China (15.5~18.6, measured by the author on fossil from Liujiang and casts of the fossils from Upper Cave).
    2. Features similar or close to that in modern humans
    The contour in hind view appears as an even curve with the broadest part locating at the temporal squama.
    The vertical line passing the most lateral point of mandibular fossa passes through the lateral cranial wall lateral to the joining point between the inner surface of cranial base and lateral cranial wall.
    The ratio of calvarium height above g-i chord to g-i chord of Dali cranium is 50.4. It is much higher than those in H.e. from ZKD(34.8~41.2)[9], Pithecanthropus from Trinil(33.3~37.4)[9] that of Kabwe (40.5) [10], Saldanha (45.0) [10] and Jebel Irhoud (43.7) [10], and higher of that of Steinheim (46) [10]. The value of Dali falls into the v.r. of EMH of Europe (49-61, including 5 cases) [10].
    The ratio of arc n-i to n-i chord of Dali cranium is 189.9. It is higher than that of Neanderthals (5 cases, 145.1~178.1) [10], between that of male (181.2) and female (203.7) of Obercassel[10]. Dali’s value is close to the average of Middle Age Japanese (200.0) [10].
    Angle b-n-op (i) of Dali is 54°. It is much higher than that of H.e. from ZKD (42°~46.5°) [9], Kabwe(48°) [9] and Neanderthals (including 5 cases, 39°~50°) [9]. It is higher than that of Ehringsdorf (52°)[9] and falls into the v.r. of modern humans (45°~59°)[9].
    Angle g-i-l of Dali cranium is 82°. It is much higher than that t of H.e. of China (57°~68°)(those of ZKD are from Weidenrech[9]; that of Nanjing is measured by the author), Ehringsdorf (63°) [10], Kabwe (68°) [10], and Neanderthals of Europe (including 7 cases, 59°~69°) [10]. Dali’s value falls within the v.r. of modern humans (80.2°~88.6°) [10].
    Upper facial height (fmt-fmt) of Dali cranium is 121mm. It is much longer than those of H.e. from ZKD(III, 109mm; XI, 111mm?)[16] and Nanjing (107mm,measured by the author) and Hexian (113mm). Dali’s value is very close to that of Maba(126mm) and Upper Cave 101(122mm), and much longer than those in Upper Cave 102 and 103 (113mm and 100mm respectively) as well as that in Liujiang(107mm)(All specimens of China except those from ZKD are measured by the author). Dali’s value is shorter than MPH of Europe(125~130mm, including Arago, Atapuerca SH5, Petralona and Ceprano)[16], and much shorter than those from Bodo(136mm) [16]and Kabwe(139mm)[16].
    The depth of facial bones (ba-pr) is 105mm. It is much shorter than that of Atapuerca SH 5 (115mm) [16], Petralona (119 mm) [16], Bodo (118 mm) [16] and Kabwe (117.5mm) [16]. Dali’s value falls within the v.r. of EMH of China (100~113.6 mm, including Liujiang and Upper Cave) [11, 12] and is close to the average of that of modern humans (including 60 cases, 97.2 mm) [16].
    The ratio n-ba/ba-pr of Dali cranium is 100.5. It is much higher than that in Bodo (88.4) [16]; Kabwe (93.1) [16], Atapuerca SH 5(87.8) [16] and Petralona (94.8) [16]. It falls within the v.r. of EMH of China (99.3~112.0 , including Liujiang and Upper Cave) [11, 12] and is close to the average of modern humans (101.7) [16].
    Cheek height(WMH) of Dali cranium is 23mm. It is within the v.r. of early modern humans of China(21.7~27.2mm, including 7 sides of 4 cases of Upper Cave and Liujiang, measured by the author). Dali’s value is shorter than that in H.e. from ZKD(XII, 28mm, measured by the author), and those in MPH of Europe(26.7~37.1mm, including 7 sides of 6 cases) [17]. It is close to the H.e. from Nanjing(24.3mm, measured by the author) and Zuttiyeh(24mm)[17], but the dimensions of H.e. from Nanjing are generally shorter than H.e. from ZKD.
    The prosthion angle (n-pr-ba) of Dali cranium is 69.5°. It is very close to the average of that of modern humans (71.4°±3.1°) [24] and much higher than that in Kabwe ( 62.1°) [24], Bodo( 59°, calculated by the author based on the data in Rightmire, 1996[23]), Atapuerca SH 5 (60.9°) [17] and Petralona (62.0°) [24].
    3. Features far from that in H.e. of China and within the v.r. of that in EMH of China and /or modern humans. These features are also close to that in MPH of Europe and/or Africa
    Dali cranium has no supraorbital process.
    The maximum cranial length (g-op) is 16.5 mm longer than glabella-inion length (g-i) in Dali cranium. The difference between these two measurements is very short or none in H.e. of China and is between 4 mm and 17 mm in EMH of China (including Liujiang[11] ,Upper Cave[12], Lijiang[13] and Chuandong 2[14]). The difference is larger than 5 mm in Petralona[15], Steinheim[15], Jebel Irhoud [10] and Narmada[15].
    Transverse fronto-parietal index (100 x ft-ft/eu-eu) is 69.6 in Dali cranium. It is higher than that of H.e. of China (55.9~64.5, including ZKD, Hexian, and Nanjing) [9, 18, 19, 25] and falls in the v.r. of EMH of China (66.9~77.1, including Liujiang , Upper Cave and Lijiang)[11, 12, 13]. Dali’s value is higher than that of Kabwe(64.3) [15] and Salé (57.5) [15]. It is within the v.r. of MPH of Europe (67.0~77.9, including Ehringsdorf, Steinheim; Arago, Ceprano, Petralona; Atapuerca SH) [15,16,17].
    The total cranial arc (n-o arc) is 379 mm in Dali cranium. It is much longer than those in H.e. from ZKD (321 mm~337 mm)[9] and H.e. from Hexian (340 mm?) [18]. It falls within the v.r. of EMH of Chna (335 mm~388.5 mm, including Liujiang, Upper Cave, Lijiang, Chuandong and Ziyang) [11-14, 28] and that of MPH of Europe and Africa (340 mm~380 mm , including Ehringsdorf [9]Atapuerca SH, Petralona, and Kabwe [9]) (the values of Atapuerca SH and Petralona are calculated by the author based on the data presented in Arsuaga et al. [17] and Stringer et al. [21],respectively).
    The cranial curvature on the n-o chord is 37.7 in Dali cranium. It is lower than that of H.e. from ZKD (43.2-44.9) [9], Nanjing (48.8) (by the author)and Hexian (38.5) [18]. It falls within the v.r. of EMH of China (36.4~40.3, including Liujiang , Upper Cave and Ziyang ) [11, 12, 28] and v.r. of modern humans (35.2~39.9) [9]. Dali’s value is close to the average of that of modern humans (36.6) [9], Kabwe (37.1) [9]and slightly lower than that of Ehringsdorf (40.1) [9].
    The ratio of maximum frontal breadth to occipital breadth (co-co/ast-ast) is 103.5 in Dali cranium. It is much higher than those of H.e. of China (including ZKD, Nanjing and Hexian: 83.9~99.1?)(ZKD is from Weidenreich, 1943[9], Nanjing and Hexian are by the author) and that of Kabwe(90.5, calculated by the author based on Weidenreich, 1943[9]). Dali’s value falls within the v.r. of MPH of Europe (93.6~108.8, including Arago, Atapuerca SH 4 and 5, Petralona, Steinheim and Swanscombe) [29]. Dali’s value falls within the v.r. of EMH of China (including Upper Cave, Liujiang and Ziyang: 100~114, by the author) and is close to the average of Mesolithic humans of Europe (male, 102.9; female, 103.3) and Sepúlveda population (male, 103.0; female, 105.6)[29].
    The minimum frontal breadth of Dali cranium is 104 mm. It is much longer than those of H.e.of China (80.0 mm~93 mm including ZKD, Hexian and Nanjing) [9, 18, 19] and falls within the v.r. of EMH of China (83 mm~110 mm , including Upper Cave, Liujiang, Ziyang, Longlin and Maludong) [1, 12, 28, 30]. It falls also in the v.r. of EMH of Europe (91 mm~111 mm) [30] and West Asia (96 mm~110 mm) [30]. The mean values of last two groups are 105±5mm and 103±5 mm respectively). Dali’s value falls also in the v.r. of MPH of Europe (102 mm~117 mm , including Arago, Steinheim; Ceprano, Petralona ; Atapuerca SH) [15, 16, 17]and is close to that of Bodo (103 mm) [16] , but is longer than that of Kabwe (96) [16].
    The ratio of minimum frontal breadth to maximum frontal breadth (ft-ft/co-co) is 87.4. It is higher than those of H.e. of China (77.8~84.3, including ZKD [9], Nanjing [19] and Hexian which is measured and calculated by the author)and falls within the v.r. of MPH of Europe (86.1~100, including Arago, Petralona, Steinheim; Ceprano , Atapuerca SH,) [15, 16, 17] and that of African MPH ( 78.3~89.6, including Bodo, Kabwe and Salé) [16, 31]. It falls also within the v.r. of EMH of China (76.0~90.5, including Upper Cave, Liujiang, Ziyang, and Maludong which is from Curnoe et al., 2012[30]; U.C., Liujiang and Ziyang are measured and calculated by the author).
    The bistaphanic breadth (st-st) of Dali cranium is 108 mm. It is longer than those of H.e. of China ( 78mm~103mm , including ZKD [9], Nanjing and Hexian, latter two are measured by the author), and falls within the v.r. of EMH of Chian(105~119.5, including Upper Cave 101, 103, Liujiang and Ziyang, all of these are measured by the author). The mean value of modern humans (110.42mm) [16] is close to that of Dali’s value which falls also within the v.r. of MPH of Europe (102mm~130mm, including Arago, Petralona, Ceprano; Atapuerca SH) [16, 17].
    Length-height index of temporal squama is 64.6 in Dali cranium. It is higher than those in H.e.of Chinna (45.2~60, including ZKD and Hexian) [9, 18], and slightly lower than those in Atapuerca SH (including 5 cases, 69.3~79.7) [32]. Dali’s value is close to the average of that of modern man (65.2) and well within his v.r. (49.4~87.5). [9]
    The frontal profile (angle m-g-i) of Dali cranium is 74°. It is much larger than those of H.e. of China (56°~63°,including ZKD, Hexian, and Nanjing ) [9, 18, 19], Pithecanthropus from Trinil (47°and 55°) [9] and MPH of Africa (including Jebel Irhoud, 67°[10]; Saldanha, 61°[10]; Kabwe, 60°[9]). Dali’s value is very close to that of Ehringsdorf (73.5°) [9] and falls in the v.r. of mordern man (70°~96°)[9].
    4. Features intermediate between MPH and EMH
    Dali cranium has a weak bregmatic eminence, a fusiform median sagittal ridge at the middle part of frontal bone, and a tympanic plate the thickness of which is intermediate between that of H.e.from ZKD and modern man.
    An angular torus presents at the outer surface of parietal bone.
    Tranverse cranial curvature (au-au / arc po-b-po) of Dali cranium is 47.2. The comparsions between Dali cramium and other specimens have been persented among the features of Group 1.
    5. Features intermediate between H.e. and EMH of China and close to those in MPH of Europe and/or Africa
    The cranial curvature above chord n-op of Dali cranium is 51.8. It is much lower than those in H.e. from ZKD (55.7~57.3) [9], slightly lower than that in H.e. from Hexian (52.9, measured by the author). It is slightly higher than the upper limit of the v.r. of EMH of China (including Upper Cave, Liujiang, and Ziyang, 47.2~51.0, by the author) and is well within the v.r. of MPH of Europe (49.5~54.4, including Ehringsdorf[9], Atapuerca SH[17] and Petralona[21]). That of Kabwe (54.2) [9] is also within the v.r. of MPH of Europe.
    The ratio of maximum frontal breadth to maximum cranial breadth (co-co/eu-eu) is 79.3 in Dali cranium. It is intermediate between those in H.e. of China (68.5~76.9, including ZKD [9], Nanjing and Hexian which are measured and calculated by the author) and those in EMH of China (79.7~93.1, including Upper Cave, Liujiang and Ziyang, measured by the author). It falls in the v.r. of MPH of Europe (Atapuerca SH: 75.0~87.9) [17] and v.r. of Neanderthals of Europe (including 11 cases, 75.5~83.4) [29]. It is much lower than the averages of early Upper Paleolithic man of Europe (male: 87.9; female: 85.2) [29]and within the v.r. of Sepúlveda population (male, 41 cases: 72.9~90.1; female, 57 cases: 77.7~90.8) [29].
    6. Features close to those in fossil humans of East Asia and distant to those of MPH of Europe and / or Africa
    The median sagittal ridge of frontal bone is higher and has narrower base than those in MPH of Europe and Africa.
    The ratio of nasion subtense fraction of n-b chord to n-b chord is 43.5 in Dali cranium. It is slightly lower than those in H.e. from ZKD(45.3~48.7) [16] and slightly higher than that of H.e from Nanjing(42.4, by the author). It falls in the v.r. of EMH of China ( 43.0~46.0, including Upper Cave and Liujiang, all are measured and calculated by the author). On the contrary, Dali’s value is much lower than those in MPH of Europe (including Petralona, 50.0[16]; Arago, 49.6, based on the data presented by de Lumley[16]) and is lower than those in MPH of Africa (44.9~54.1, including Laetoli OH18, Eliye Springs , Omo 1, Jebel Ithoud 1 and 2 and Singa) [3].
    The occipital angle of Dali cranium is 96°. It is within the v.r. of H.e. of China (including ZKD and Nanjing, 95°~108°, measured on the Figures in Weidenreich[9] and Wu et al. [19] respectively) and is much lower than those of Atapuerca SH (106.5°~126.1°) [17]. Dali’s value is also much lower than those of Plio/Pleistocene huamns of Africa( 101°~114°, including KNM-ER 3883, 3733, 1813?) [34], Dmanisi (115.6° and 108°) [34] and Sangiran (105° and 100°) [34].
    The anterior interorbital breadth (mf-mf) of Dali cranium is 21.5 mm. It is close to that in EMH of China (including Upper Cave and Liujiang: 19.1mm~21.2mm, by the author), H.e. from ZKD(No.XII, 22.5mm), Nanjing(19mm) and slightly shorter than that of EMH of Europe (including 7 cases: 23.4±2.9 mm) [22]. Dali’s value is much shorter than that in MPH of Europe, Africa and West Asia (including 5 cases, 29.5±2.2 mm) [22].
    The upper facial index (n-pr/zy-zy) of Dali cranium is 53.2. It is close to that of Jinniushan(50.1)[26], H.e. of Nanjing (49.9) [19] and ZKD XII (54.5, measured by the author on cast). Dali’s value is within the v.r. of EMH of China(48.5~53.8) [11, 12] , but is lower than those in MPH of Europe (56.0~59.0, including Petralona, Steinheim; Atapuerca SH) [10, 17] and Africa (54.2~64.7, including Jebel Irhoud, Kabwe; Bodo) [10, 35].
    The distance between infraorbital foramen and inferior border of orbit is 8.3 in Dali cranium. It is close to that in H.e. of Nanjing (7.5 mm, measured by the author) and much shorter than those in Atapuerca SH (14.1 mm~17.7 mm) [17] and Petralona (16.4 mm) [17].
    The ratio d-d to fm:a of Dali cranium is 22.8 mm. The comparisons between Dali cranium and other specimens have been presented among the features of Group 1.
    7. Features quite different from those in H.e. of China and are close to those in MPH of Europe and/or Africa
    In Dali cranium supraorbital process is absent, the middle part of the supraorbital torus is much thicker than the medial and lateral part, and there is a bulge between the orbit and pyriform aperture.
    The l-ast chord of Dali cranium is 94 mm. It is within the v.r. of MPH of Europe (74.5 mm~95.6 mm , including 10 cases, 17 sides of Atapuerca SH and Petralona) [17, 21] and much longer than those in H.e. of China (77 mm~87 mm, including ZKD[9] and Hexian which is measured by the author).
    The bifrontal breadth (fm: a-fm: a) of Dali cranium is 114 mm. It is much longer than the MPH of China (96 mm~104 mm, inluding H.e. from ZKD, Naanjing and Hexian, Maba , all of these are measured by the author) and close to those in MPH of Europe, Africa and West Asia ( mean value of 6 cases: 114.7±8.5) [22].
    The EQ of Dali cranium, average of H.e. from ZKD and MPH of Europe and Africa are 5.30, 4.6 and 5.3±1.29 respectively, as estimated by Rightmire[36].
    8. Feature close to those in MPH of Africa and distant from other MPH of China and Europe
    The ratio of glabella subtense fraction of g-b chord to g-b chord is 43.4 in Dali cranium. It is lower than those of H.e. from ZKD (47~50.9, measured and calculated by the author based on the figures in Black[37] and Weidenreich[9]), Nanjing (49.7, by the author ) and Maba (45.1, by the author). But it is within the v.r. of EMH of China (41~48.5, including Huanglong[40], Upper Cave, Liujiang and Ziyang, that of the latter three are made by the author), Dali’s value is within the v.r. of MPH of Africa (42.6~58.5, including Florisbad, Jebel Irhoud, Kabwe, Laetoli, Omo 1 and Saldanha) [3]. But it is much lower than those in Arago (51, calculated by the author based on the cast and the data presented in Spitery [38]), and Ceprano (60.8, measured and calculated by the author based on the figure presented in Ascenzi et al [39]).
    9. Features rarely seen in other MPH or uniquely seen in Dali
    A quadrangular shaped process of the size of 10×7 mm, extending from the antero-superior part of temporal squama and connects with frontal bone. This makes the sutures in pteryon region obliquely posited ∏ shape.
    The crista galli is thin and low with a large transverse diameter. The angle g-i-o of Dali is 21°. It is much smaller than those in H. e. from ZKD (37°~44°,measured by the author on the figures presented in Weidenreich [9]) and Nanjing (49°, measured by the author on cast) , Neanderthals of Europe and Asia (31°~54°, including 7 cases) [10] and modern man (31°~40°) [10].
    Discussion and conclusion
    The features including in Group 1 confirm the position of Dali cranium in Middle Pleistocene. Features of Group 2 show that this cranium is one of the specimens closer to EMH than H.e. if not also MPH of Europe and Africa. Part of the features of Group 2, 3, 4 and 5 suggest that thepopulation represented by Dali cranium provides more contribution to the formation of modern man than H.e. of China, if not also the MPH of west part of Old World. The features of Groups 1 and 2 and some features of other Groups indicate that Dali cranium represents a mosaic with primitive and progressive characters. Features of Group 6 and part features in Group 1, 2, 3 and 5 suggest close relation of Dali cranium to populations of East Asia. Many features presented in Groups 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9 indicate that Dali cranium probably belong to a population different from H.e. Thhe features of Group 3, 5, 7, 8 and part of Group 4 suggest that Dali may have close relation with the populations in the western part of Old World. So Dali cranium is a mosaic joining some features of H.e. of China, MPH of Europe and Africa as well as some modern features. This cranium belongs to neither H.e., nor H.heidelbergensis. The population represented by Dali cranium have made more contribution in the formation of EMH of China than H.e. of China and MPH of Africa. Considering the geographical factor and the association with the Paleoliths of Mode I of Dali cranium, more reasonable inference may be that the root of the population represented by Dali cranium is in East Asia and the antecessors of this population originally had higher affinity with the populations of Europe or had absorbed the gene flow from the West before evolving to Dali population.
    With regards to the relation between the humans of Middle and Late Pleistocene Rightmire (1995)[41] has proposed four hypotheses, the evidence exhibited in the present paper are more favourable to the fourth hypothesis of him, namely the recent humans are most closely related with Archaic Asians.
    In spite of the limitation of the data for comparison the present author would like to say that the complexity of the morphology shown in Dali cranium suggeats that the human evolution in East Asia is not as simple as we thought until present. The Middle Pleistocene humans may be classified into several morphs: Dali morph, erectus morph, Narmada morph, Zuttiye morph, Rhodesia morph (for Africa), Heidelberg morph (for Europe) etc. Hexian specimens may represent a submorph of erectus morph, Jinniushan, Maba and Quyuan River Mouth may represent separate submorphs of Dali morph or separate morphs for themselves. Atapuerca SH and Arago may represent separate submorphs. The model of human evolution in Middle Pleistocene is like a river network.
    The above mentioned comparisons are based on limited information available. The author looks forward to the accumulation of new data to renew the preliminary conclusion based on this study.
    Human Fossils Found from Hualong Cave, Dongzhi County, Anhui Province
    GONG Xicheng,ZHENG Longting,XING Song, WU Xiujie,TONG Haowen,LIU Wu
    2014, 33(04):  427-436. 
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    In 2006, one human lower second molar and two pieces of frontal fragments were found from the excavation at Hualong Cave in Dongzhi County, Anhui Province. According to the faunal composition and stratigraphy, human and mammal fossils of Hualong Cave come from the Middle Pleistocene. In the present study, morphologies of the Hualong Cave human fossils were described and compared with related human fossils. Our study indicates that both the Hualong Cave frontal bone and lower molar exhibit a suit of features that are usually found in East Asian Homo erectus. Two pieces of the Hualong Cave frontal bones fit well together indicating they come from the same individual. The frontal bone has small curvature but shows a robust temporal line and thick cranial wall. Besides, the Hualong Cave frontal bone has a metopic suture and enlarged frontal sinus. The lower second molar of the Hualong Cave looks robust. On its occlusal surface, there are cusp 5, cusp 6 and cusp 7. Crown dimensions are within variations of Homo erectus and much larger than those of early modern human, contemporary human and European Middle Pleistocene humans. Considering the cranial and dental morphological patterns of the Hualong Cave human fossils revealed from the present study, we propose that the human fossils found from the Hualong Cave represent Homo erectus living during the Middle Pleistocene.
    A New Discovered Human Occipital Fossil from Shigou Quarry, Xiangfen County, Shanxi Province of North China
    DU Baopu, ZHOU Yi, SUN Jinhui, ZHANG Lizhao, XIA Hongru, WANG Yiren, ZHAO Lingxia
    2014, 33(04):  437-447. 
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    In 2012, a human occipital bone fossil was discovered by Zhou Yi, from the Museum of Dingcun, in a quarry (35°45.963′ N, 111°25.310′ E) near Shigou village, Xiangfen County, Shanxi Province in North China. The quarry is located about 10 km southeast of Xiangfen County, on the west bank of the Fenhe River, at an altitude of about 412 m above sea level. It is located on the third terrace of the Fenhe River valley. According to Zhou Yi and Wang Chongfa, the quarry owner, the occipital bone was recovered from the gravel mound after the sandy gravel matrix was sifted by workers, so the fossil should be from the sand-gravel layer. Since the quarry was excavated, the stratigraphic section only retained part of the gravel layer and the underlying strata. A bunker located 104m south of the quarry that also occurred on the third terrace retained a complete section. The complete exposed strata of the quarry includes: Malan loess, reddish soil, gray silty layer, gravel layer, marly silt layer, sand-gravel layer, marly silt layer and fine sandy layer. The geological age of the sandgravel layer where the human fossil was located is late Middle Pleistocene. The fossil remains include part of the occipital squama specifically the right cerebral fossa, a portion of the left cerebral fossa, missing the basioccipital and exoccipital. A transverse suture is approximately 52.0mm at the superior border of the occipital squama and it indicates an Inca bone should exist between the parietal bones and the occipital bone. Considering the open occipital-mastoid suture and roughness of the outer surface, the occipital bone might belong to a young individual about 16~26 years of age. The wall of the cerebral fossa is about 6.5mm thick, within the range of variation in modern humans. The highest nuchal line is visible in the left part of the occipital squama, while the superior nuchal line, the highest nuchal line and the occipital torus are absent on the right side. In Homo erectus and archaic Homo sapiens fossils from China, the occipital torus is characteristic and strong developed, while the superior nuchal line and the highest nuchal line are absent. The occipital torus is absent or less developed in early modern humans, while the superior nuchal line and the highest nuchal line do exist. So the morphology of the Shigou occipital bone is more derived than Homo erectus and archaic Homo sapiens, and more similar to modern humans. It indicates that the Shigou human may belong to early modern humans. Inca bones are common in Pleistocene human fossils from China, such as Homo erectus pekinensis from Zhoukoudian and archaic Homo sapiens from Dali in Shaanxi, and from Xujiayao and Dingcun in Shanxi. This feature is also seen in early modern humans of Chuandong in Guizhou. The presence of an Inca bone at Shigou provide more evidence that the Inca bone is a regional characteristic of Pleistocene East Asians, which supports the hypothesis of continuity of human evolution in Pleistocene East Asia.
    The Early Neolithic Human Skull from the Qihe Cave, Zhangping, Fujian
    WU Xiujie, FAN Xuechun, LI Shiming, GAO Xing, ZHANG Yameng, FANG Yuan, ZHOU Aqiang, CHEN Jun
    2014, 33(04):  448-459. 
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    The early Neolithic human skull, Qihe III, found in Zhangping, Fujian Province, and dated about 10,000 years ago is described in this paper. Qihe III is the earliest and most complete human skull currently identified in the Fujian area; thus it is an important piece in the analysis of craniofacial variation of human physical characteristics of southern Chinese, and the formation and differentiation of modern human populations in the Late Pleistocene to Holocene transition. Qihe III belongs to a middle-age male about 35 years old. The individual suffers from a severe carious lesion. It is supposed that the people to which this skull belongs mainly relied on agriculture. Compared with crania from the Late Pleistocene of Liujiang, Upper Cave 101, and 14 Neolithic groups, the skull of Qihe shows mixed physical characteristics of the Neolithic southern and Neolithic northern populations, and of the Late Pleistocene. The Qihe III has a long head and a large cranial capacity similar to the Late Homo sapiens. His high and narrow face, medium orbital height, broad and low nasal shape, is unidentified as a southern or northern pattern. The results of principal components analysis of the cranial measurements show no significant differences were found between the Neolithic southern and northern groups. However in cranial index or cranial shape, the craniofacial morphology indicates spatial-temporal variation among Late Homo sapiens, Neolithic southern and Neolithic northern groups. Early Neolithic skulls show a large variation during the Late Pleistocene to Holocene transition.
    Bioarchaeological Analysis of Bronze Age Populations of the Liushui Cemetery Using Dental Nonmetric Traits
    ZHANG Xu, ZHU Hong, WANG Minghui, WU Xinhua
    2014, 33(04):  460-470. 
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    The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, located in northwestern China, has long been a special area where populations may have originated from the east or from the west based on previous bioarchaeological studies of human cranial variation. Earlier archaeological studies from this region indicate that cultural exchanges occurred across this area during the Bronze Age and early Iron Age, however it is unclear when and how such cultural exchanges or population migrations took place. The Liushui cemetery (2950±50 BP) located in Yutian County, Xinjiang, was excavated by the Institute of Archaeology of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences between 2003 and 2005. Sixtyfive tombs are the first group of Bronze Age tombs and earliest cultural remains discovered at the northern foot of the Kunlun Mountains and provided cultural data on the local inhabitants in this region. We examined 111 individuals from Liushui cemetery. Nineteen dental nonmetric traits were collected from each individual. We compared 15 dental nonmetric traits with those from other regions of Eurasia in order to reconstruct population affinities of the study sample. Population comparisons were conducted through Smith’s Mean Measure of Divergence distance cluster and principal components analyses. This study indicated that the Liushui group has closer affinities to people from southern Siberia and the Black Sea area. It also suggests that human migrations from the west can be traced back to as early as 3000 BP in southwestern Xinjiang.
    Morphological Evidence of the Formation and Diversification of Modern Chinese: the Comparative Analysis of M1 Relative Cuspal Areas of Recent Asian and African Populations
    XING Song, ZHOU Mi, LIU Wu
    2014, 33(04):  471-482. 
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    The processes of formation and diversification of modern human populations resulted in a series of physical characteristics in different geographic regions. These characteristics were consequently important in tracing population affinity. As an essential part of molar morphometrics, the relative cuspal area has gained intense interest due to its value in studies of both human evolution and population affinity. However, it was not clear whether the regional variation of M1 relative cuspal areas exists among different populations. Based on measurements and comparisons of relative cuspal areas of 208 M1s, the present study revealed that recent Asian and African populations were significant different from each other in relative sizes of all four cusps. Specifically, Asians had a relatively large protocone and paracone, and a relatively small metacone and hypocone. Ranges of variations of all four cusps were larger in African specimens than in Asian ones, especially the relative protocone and hypocone sizes. Discriminant analysis could correctly discriminate 69.2% of the specimens into their original groups. After comparisons with corresponding data of fossil hominins, recent Africans were found to be more close to early forms of human evolution in relative cuspal areas of protocone and hypocone, as well as in the proportion of paracone/metacone. Diversification of recent Asian and African populations in the M1 relative cuspal areas can be traced back at least to the early Holocene, and the acquiring of a more precise diversification time required involvement of hominins of Late and even Middle Pleistocene. The high degree of heterogeneity and relative primitiveness of recent African specimens revealed by the present study need to be ascertained through further studies.
    Dental Health of Ancient Mogou Residents in Lintan, Gansu Province
    ZHAO Yongsheng, ZENG Wen, MAO Ruilin, ZHU Hong
    2014, 33(04):  483-494. 
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    A total of 262 skulls from the Mogou cemetery of the Qijia Culture in Lintan County, Gansu Province, were examined for the incidence of observable dental diseases, including dental caries, periodontal disease, periapical disease and dental calculus. The results of statistical analysis indicate the following patterns: 1) Significant difference of dental diseases rates found between males and females, with females having higher rates of dental caries and periodontal disease, and males having higher rates of periapical disease and dental calculus. 2) Dental disease rate was positively correlated with age. 3) There was a higher prevalence of caries, periodontal disease, periapical disease in molars, and dental calculus in anterior teeth. 4) Severely attritted teeth had higher prevalence of periodontal and periapical diseases. 5) The prevalence of dental diseases is also associated with the mode of subsistence and diet, specifically farming and gathering.
    Oral Heath and Diet of the Xiaohe Cemetery Populations in Lop Nur, Xinjiang Province
    HE Letian, ZHU Hong, LI Wengying, Idriss
    2014, 33(04):  497-509. 
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    The Xiaohe cemetery is an important Early Bronze Age cemetery in Lop Nur, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The degree of wear and calculus deposition was observed and quantified using statistics. We also used some simple statistics on the other oral diseases, such as temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis, dental abscesses, and ante mortem tooth loss. This study found the following results. Compared to other ancient populations in China, Xiaohe human teeth were characterized by a high degree of tooth wear and with a higher frequency of temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis and maxillary torus. Front and rear teeth wear was unremarkable. We believe that the manner of food processing in the Xiaohe populations was relatively simple, with more tough foods eaten than in other groups. On the other hand, the economic lifestyle and foods of the Xiaohe residents was complex with different foods causing different attrition levels, with the environment playing a role. The severe dental calculus deposition shown in the Xiaohe populations was attributed to a high protein, carbohydrate diet, and due to water quality. Statistical analysis showed that Xiaohe populations had sexual differences in canine tooth wear, implying women and men had a division of skills within the family.
    Behavioral Modernity of Ancient Populations at Shuidonggou Locality 2 and its Implications
    LI Feng, CHEN Fuyou, GAO Xing
    2014, 33(04):  510-521. 
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    Evolution of Homo sapiens sapiens and their behaviors are hotly debated issues in the Paleolithic community. This paper analyzed archaeological materials from Shuidonggou Locality 2 in aspects of ecology, technology, economy and social organization, and symbolic behavior. Locality 2 contained various innovations in different archaeological layers that indicated diverse evolutionary significance. Continuous evolution of flake technology in North China from 40ka to 20ka supports the hypothesis of “continuity with hybridization” of Chinese ancient populations from a cultural perspective. On the premise of this theory, seeking the innovations of Chinese ancient populations should concern evolutionary processes of behavior rather than identifying behavioral modernity or modern behaviors with a list summarized on archaeological materials from Europe and Africa. The variation of behaviors after the appearance of modern humans in China and elsewhere appeals for researches on behavioral variability and its causes instead of making inventories of modern behaviors. Furthermore, estimation of biological nature and ability of behavior in the Chinese Late Paleolithic with a European-centered list of modern behaviors should be avoided.
    Explaining the Function of Stone Hoes Unearthed at the Dashanqian Site, Kalaqin, Inner Mongolia
    CHEN Shengqian, YANG Kuan, DONG Zhe, CHEN Hui, WANG Lixin
    2014, 33(04):  522-533. 
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    The function of stone hoes from the Lower Xiajiadian Culture has still not been resolved. This paper is an attempt to explore function, socio-historical significance, and research methodology of these tools. By analysing of their design, use wear, replica and use experiments, and ethnographic analogy, we argue that stone hoes unearthed from the Dashanqian site were neither a tool used for digging, nor for weeding. They are a kind of tool for breaking up clods of soil, hooking weeds, leveling fields, digging furrows, and dredging irrigation ditches. We further explore farming technology during the Lower Xiajiadian Culture, while considering socio historical conditions and environmental background, emphasizing the importance of these two criteria.
    Age Profiles of Rhinoceros from the Yanliang Cave, Fusui County, Guangxi, South China
    YAN Yaling, JIN Changzhu, ZHU Min, LIU Yihong, LIU Jinyu
    2014, 33(04):  534-544. 
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    The Gigantopithecus fauna recently discovered in the Yanliang Cave, Fusui County, Chongzuo Municipality, Guangxi Autonomous Region, South China, consists of abundant Gigantopithecus remains including mandibles and a large variety of fossil mammals. The most conspicuous large mammalian remains include 146 complete isolated teeth and a dozen postcrania of Rhinocerotidae, belonging to Rhinoceros fusuiensis based on morphological analysis. The Yanliang Gigantopithecus fauna is characterized by the presence of several Neogene relic taxa such as Megantereon, Hesperotherium and “Dicoryphochoerus”, and many primitive species from the Quaternary such as Pachycrocuta licenti, Ailuropoda microta, Tapirus sanyuanensis, Typhlomys intermedius, Niviventer preconfucianus and Leopoldamys edwardsioides. The geological age is estimated to be Early Pleistocene based on fauna and stratigraphic correlation. Age profiles of these Rhinoceros remains were determined on the basis of tooth attrition analysis and checking the exposure of enamel and dentine. Results show that there are at least five adults and five sub-adult individuals, which were the dominant elements in the fossil assemblage suggesting their death was due to disaster.