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    15 June 2018, Volume 37 Issue 02
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    Occurrence of Carabelli’s cusp in Chinese hominins and its evolutionary implication
    LIU Wu, ZHOU Mi, XING Song
    2018, 37(02):  159-175. 
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    The relationship between hominins in Europe and Asia has been the concern of human evolutionary studies for a while. Based on morphological studies of hominin fossils, some researchers believe that there was gene flow between these hominins during the Middle and Late Pleistocene based on morphological evidence. However there have been different understandings of some of aspects of population affinity, function, development and homology. In this research, occurrences and expression patterns of Carabelli’s cusp of 98 upper molars of Chinese hominins were analyzed in both the outer enamel surface (OES) and enamel dentine junction (EDJ) based on micro-CT scanning. Comparisons with the specimens of African and European hominins were also considered. Our results show that Carabelli’s cusp has a high frequency in Chinese hominins (27.6%~62.5%) including different expression patterns, specifically the cingulum-protocone crest and horizontal groove across the crown lingual surface or shelf-like Carabelli’s cusp, which usually occur in chimpanzee and African early hominins but are also identified in a number of upper molars of Chinese hominins. With these results, we support the view that Carabelli’s cusp is an ancient or primitive feature that evolved from apes until modern humans. The expression patterns of Carabelli’s cusp in Chinese hominins suggest that this trait is possibly a remnant of the ancient or primitive feature. This study shows that Carabelli’s cusp has a high frequency in both Chinese and European hominins but is more pronounced in Chinese hominins than its European counterparts. Therefore, there is no reliable evidence to currently support Carabelli’s cusp as a morphological feature indicative of gene flow between Chinese and European hominins.
    The origins of modern Homo sapiens in China: An archaeological perspective
    LI Feng, GAO Xing
    2018, 37(02):  176-191. 
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    Hypotheses concerning the origins of modern Homo sapiens have been intensively debated, and two competing models, the “Assimilation” and “Multiregional Evolution” paradigms, have dominated current research and discussions. Based upon the hominin fossil record from China, Wu Xizhi proposed a “Continuity with Hybridization” model based upon the “Multiregional Evolution” paradigm to address Pleistocene human evolution in China. This model suggests modern humans in China are mainly evolved from local archaic hominins with genetic input from western Eurasia. In this paper, we review archaeological materials dating to Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 5 to 3 and discuss their implications for understanding modern human origins in China. First, we briefly introduce the multiple lines of evidence which have been used to support northern and southern routes of modern human dispersals. Second, we evaluate lithic technological variability from MIS 5 to 3 in China and discuss its significance for modern human evolution and dispersals. Finally, we touch upon the ongoing challenges in research on the anatomically modern human diaspora using archaeological data from China. Archaeological evidence, especially lithic technology during MIS 5 and 3, demonstrates three points: 1) continuous evolution of simple core-flake systems in southern North China and South China may support the local derivation of modern humans; 2) the Initial Upper Paleolithic in northwest China may suggest the in-migration of modern human groups from Central Asia or Siberia during MIS 3; 3) a few lithic assemblages with organized technology in South China may imply that some MIS 5 modern human groups entered China from southern Asia. At least three sources may be responsible for the origins of modern humans in China, and interaction among various modern human groups may have also occurred. This scenario generally fits Wu’s “Continuity with Hybridization” model, but we also realize that the paleoanthropological and archaeological data from MIS 5 and 3 are still scarce, particularly with respect to a dearth of sites yielding both abundant fossil and cultural materials. The discoveries of additional well-dated sites, especially those bearing both hominin fossils and archaeological remains, are crucial for understanding modern human evolution in China. With such additional data we will be able to test current hypotheses for modern human origins on a more solid basis.
    Middle Pleistocene hominins from the Sunjiadong site, Luanchuan county, Henan Province, Central China
    ZHAO Lingxia, LI Xuan , GU Xuejun , DU Baopu, SHI Jiazhen , GAO Xing
    2018, 37(02):  192-205. 
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    New fossil hominins associated with rich large mammal fauna and a few stone artifacts, were discovered from the Sunjiadong cave site during 2012 excavation season by the Luoyang Cultural Relics and Archaeology Institute and the Luanchuan Heritage Management Centre. The geological age of the Luanchuan hominins is Middle Pleistocene according to the faunal assemblage. The six hominin fossils are identified as the follows: juvenile left maxillary fragment with upper M1 , juvenile left mandible fragment with lower M1, and four isolated teeth identified as a left upper P2 germ, left lower M2 germ, right lower lateral adult I2, and juvenile M2. These isolated teeth represent three individuals, respectively age 6~7, age 11~12 and one adult. Dental development of the juvenile maxilla and mandible and two isolated tooth germs, which might all belong to the same individual, match dental development patterns in juvenile modern humans. The age of M1 emergence of the Luanchuan hominins was possibly six years old. Tooth size and morphology of the six teeth match Homo erectus from Zhoukoudian. The Luanchuan hominins, with typical regional dental traits, provide new fossil evidence for the continuity hypothesis of human evolution in East Asia.
    Prehistoric interbreeding between archaic human groups and anatomically modern humans
    ZHANG Ming, FU Qiaomei
    2018, 37(02):  206-218. 
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    With the emergence and advancements in ancient DNA experimental methods and high-throughput sequencing technology, it is increasingly possible to directly extract and retrieve genetic materials from ancient human fossils. This has led to a series of breakthroughs in the genomic research of archaic humans, including reconstructing the past interactions between archaic humans (i.e. Neanderthals and Denisovans) and modern humans outside Africa. Fossil and ancient DNA evidences indicate that as the early modern humans spread from Africa, they encountered and received genes from archaic humans after some coexistence with them; likewise, the genes of early modern humans affected certain archaic populations, and that the archaic populations had genetic admixture among themselves. Interbreeding among prehistoric humans occurred many times across geography, and has laid down the foundation of the gene pool of modern humans. It is profoundly influencing the way we think about our physiology and morphology as well as the prevalence of diseases in present-day.
    New achievements and prospects in the study of Xuchang hominid site
    LI Zhanyang, LI Hao, WU Xiujie
    2018, 37(02):  219-227. 
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    The Lingjing site in Xuchang country has been excavated from 2005 to 2017. Currently, more than 500 square meters have been dug within layer 11. Five human individuals, including two human crania, were found in trench 9 in 2007 and 2014 respectively. The human crania from Lingjing show a mosaic of features of archaic humans in China and Neanderthals in Europe, which may stimulate new consideration of the evolutionary trajectory of ancient humans in China. The lithic assemblage indicates that there are various types of cores, including small biconical discoidal cores. Tools are small in size and have discrete types and refined retouch, which differs with tool production in the Early Paleolithic but is similar to technology in the western Middle Paleolithic. Eight bone retouchers have been identified from the site. Both long bones and antler were used as bone retouchers to modify stone tools. The identification of bone retouchers sheds light on our understanding of human technological development in the Chinese Paleolithic age. Detailed study of bone retouchers or soft hammers in future may reveal their existence in other contemporary or even older sites. The study of site formation processes at Lingjing shows that there is differential modification of the stratigraphic horizons: the lowest level experienced relatively weak hydrodynamics, while the middle and upper levels exhibit relatively stronger hydraulic flows. Although disturbance is apparent, overall its extent is limited, and the site is in primary context. Future study of Lingjing will focus on these aspects: artistic behaviors of the humans, soft hammer and pressure retouching of the stone tools, and the taphonomy and chronology of the site.
    Comparison of frontal morphology among modern major populations: A 3D geometric morphometric study
    CUI Yaming
    2018, 37(02):  228-240. 
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    The frontal bone is the important cranial part that connects the facial and neurocranial parts of the cranium. Little is known about the variance of the frontal shapes of the major populations in the world. In addition, the complicated surface morphology of frontal bone limits the possibility of further research. The current study aims to investigate the morphological variation of the frontal bone of East Asian modern human population, and the comparisons with other major modern human populations of geographically dispersed locations (Europe, Southeast Asia, America, Africa and Australia), using three-dimensional surface landmarks based geometric morphometric methods. 11 landmarks, 31 curve semi-landmarks and 418 surface semi-landmarks on the frontal bone for each specimen. We then performed 3D geometric morphometric analyses to quantify the frontal shapes. Within the populations included in this study, the main variation is exhibited in following ways: 1) the robusticity of the frontal tubercle of the frontal squama and the relative width of the frontal bone; 2) the development of the superciliary arches, frontal tubercles, and mid-sagittal crest. To further explore the relationships between the frontal morphology of the East Asian population and other populations, we carried out analyses of frontal size and comparisons. The results show that East Asian and European modern human populations exhibits the greatest median of the centroid size of the frontal bone, and Australian the smallest. Permutation test shows that the East Asian and Indian American populations share the closest frontal morphology in terms of Procrustes distance. Statistically significant differences were observed between Australian aboriginals and all the other populations. And the frontal morphology of the East Asian population exhibit significant difference between Australian aboriginals, Europeans and African modern humans. The current study also tested the association between frontal morphology and the genetic distance. The result shows that they are significantly correlated (r=0.214, p=0.002), suggesting that the morphological differences reflect genetic differences to some extent. The frontal morphologies of East Asian population show unique features in the comparison to all the populations included in this study, possibly suggesting a relatively isolated evolutionary history for the East Asian population. Future analyses of geometric morphometrics on the frontal surface will continue to explore the difference between specimens of different gender, and evolutional stage through expanding the sample size of cranial materials.
    Overview of body composition research
    XI Huanjiu, LI Wenhui, WEN Youfeng, LIU Yingying
    2018, 37(02):  241-252. 
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    In recent years, the research of body composition in China has made encouraging progress. To celebrate the academician, Xinzhi Wu, ninetieth birthday, and respond to questions raised by scholars in Anthropological Professional Committee of Chinese Anatomy Association held in Hohhot, promote research of body composition in our country, this paper collected the 730 publications at home and abroad since 1985 covering many topics from the research methods, its application and effectiveness, variation among populations to theory of body composition, and the like. By comparing with the current international latest research progress and analyzing them, the disparities were found out and suggestions were put forward in the future.
    Acheulian-like tools found at Nyade site in North Tibet—With discussions on human occupation of Tibetan Plateau in Late Pleistocene
    WANG Shejiang, ZHANG Xiaoling, CHEN Zujun, YI Mingjie, GE Junyi, Dawa, HE Wei, ZHANG Jianlin, LI Jingshu, Luosang, Habibu, LI Linhui, GAO Xing
    2018, 37(02):  253-269. 
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    Nyade site is located in Xainza County in the north Tibetan Plateau (Qinghai-Xizang Plateau). The site was firstly discovered by a joint archaeological team from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP, CAS), the Institute of cultural relics preservation of Xizang Autonomy Region, and the Bureau of Cultural Relics of Naqu in the summer of 2013. The site is about 400~500m in width (from east to west), and is about 2km in length (from north to south). There are a large number of lithic artifacts scattered on the surface, showing that it is a large-scale Paleolithic open-air site. Nine Acheulean-like hand-axes and two cleavers had been collected from more than tens of thousands surface lithic artifacts in the archaeological survey. This article has analyzed these two kinds of lithic artifacts from the site, and re-analyzed similar lithic artifacts in the other areas in the Tibetan Plateau. We propose that these kinds of stone artifacts actually belong to the Upper Paleolithic Levallois cores and the artifacts just look like Acheulean hand-axe and cleaver in shape occasional, but they are not the real hand-axes and cleavers. We believe that the Acheulean lithic industrial does not expand to the hinterland of the Tibetan Plateau in the late Upper Paleolithic stage. In the last stage of Upper Pleistocene, the early occupiers, which came from the Indian subcontinent, along with the passages between the Himalayas, Gangdise and Kunlun mountains, started to expand to the northeastern hinterland of the Tibetan Plateau. In the mean time, the Acheulean complexity has already disappeared in Africa and Eurasia. The hinterland of the Tibetan Plateau does not have conditions to resuscitate this lithic technology.
    Review and prospect of the research of DNA-based modern human origins over the past 35 years
    LEI Xiaoyun, YUAN Dejian, ZHANG Ye, HUANG Shi
    2018, 37(02):  270-283. 
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    In 1983, the first mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogenetic tree of modern humans suggested that the origin of modern humans might be in Asia. In 1987, a different DNA tree was constructed based on the molecular clock hypothesis that suggested the origin of mtDNA in Africa some 200,000 years ago. Subsequent Y chromosome and autosomal studies also supported the Out-of-Africa model, which became the mainstream theory in molecular evolution. In 2010, the draft sequence of the Neandertal genome suggested that Neandertals might have contributed to the genome of present-day peoples. The Out-of-Africa model (also called recent single origin hypothesis or replacement hypothesis) has been revised as the assimilation model. Many researchers have now openly challenged the molecular clock and the neutral theory as more and more genome sequences have been found to be functional or under natural selection with variations being at the saturation phase, which has made the Out-of-Africa model much less certain than commonly believed. Some researchers have now established a new framework for understanding the saturation and linear phases of genetic diversity puzzle, which should lead to a more complete resolution of the human origins question.
    Preliminary report on the mammalian fossils from the ancient human site of Hualong Cave in DongZhi, Anhui
    TONG Haowen, WU Xiujie, DONG Zhe, SHENG Jinchao, JIN Zetian, PEI Shuwen, LIU Wu
    2018, 37(02):  284-305. 
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    The Hualong Cave was recovered in 2004, and 4 excavations have been conducted during 2006 and 2014-2016, which resulted in the discovery of several human fossils and numerous mammalian fossils. This paper is a preliminary report on the mammalian fossils unearthed during 2014-2016. Currently 43 mammalian species, including indeterminate species, belonging to 24 families and 8 orders have been identified. The fauna is dominated by artiodactyls. The majority of the fossils are bone fragments with very few gnawing marks of rodents, dental specimens are few, and complete bone is scanty. The Hualong Cave fauna is similar with those of Nanjing Man site and Hexian Man site in the following aspects: 1) With human remains; 2) Absence of relict elements of Neogene fauna; 3) Containing the common elements of Ailuropoda-Stegodon Fauna, e.g. Ailuropoda, Stegodon, Megatapirus, Bubalus and Arctonyx, on the other hand, some boreal elements were also recovered, but Hualong Cave bears no more than Crocidura wongi, Scaptochirus moschatus, Cricetulus, Lasiopodomys brandti, Ursus arctos, Sus lydekkeri, Cervus (Sika) grayi and Sinomegaceros sp., and the Sinomegaceros represents the southernmost occurrence of its kind; 4) Containing Stegodon instead of Elephas as in other Late Pleistocene fauna in southern China; 5) Containing rich postcranial bones, which is different from other cave sites which mainly bear isolated teeth specimens. Based on the faunal composition, the Hualong Cave fauna can be correlated with the fauna of Hexian Man Site, both of them should be of a Middle Pleistocene age. Because the site was not completely exposed, its character is not clear yet; but the bats fossils could be indicative of a cave site.
    Settlement and subsistence pattern analyses in Paleolithic archaeology
    CHEN Chun, ZHANG Meng
    2018, 37(02):  306-317. 
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    Due to the fact that human behavior information contained in lithic remains themselves is limited, Paleolithic archaeology should adopt cultural ecology, in which framework information of land use, foraging strategy and resource exploitation should be extracted from the combination of three level exploration: macro-level ecological niche, medium-level catchment area and microlevel living floor. The paper discusses the concepts and methodology of settlement archaeology and catchment area analysis, using Guilá Naquitz as an example to illustrate their significance in exploring human adaptation and origin of agriculture. The paper argues that Chinese Paleolithic archaeological studies should be shifted from lower level of artifact classification and description to reconstruction of human ecology and behavior, in order to catch up with academic progress in the world.
    Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope of the human bones from the Xiaonanzhuang cemetery, Jinzhong, Shanxi: A preliminary study on the expansion of wheat in ancient Shanxi, China
    TANG Miao, WANG Xiaoyi, HOU Kan, HOU Liangliang
    2018, 37(02):  318-330. 
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    The expansion of wheat in ancient northern China has been increasingly discussed and debated in recent years, with a focus on arguments for the temporal-spatial expansion of wheat in a traditional millet-based agricultural area. Some studies show that there is a time difference in the impact of wheat on millet-based agriculture in different areas of northern ancient China. Historical records and archaeological remains indicate that wheat remains were discovered in northern China during the Longshan period. However, it was not until the Eastern Zhou Dynasty and its later periods that wheat affected millet-based agriculture significantly. In order to explore the expansion of wheat in Shanxi Province during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty and its possible impact on human diet and subsistence economy, carbon and nitrogen stable isotopic analyses were performed on human bones from Xiaonanzhuang cemetery, an Eastern Zhou Dynasty cemetery, Jinzhong City, Shanxi Province, China. The results show that δ13C (-9.0‰~-7.5‰, -8.0‰±0.4‰, n=16) and δ15N (9.0‰~11.7‰, 10.5‰±0.9‰, n=16) values are high and concentrated, indicating that people relied primarily on C4 foods coming from millet and animals consuming millet products and/or by-products. Meanwhile, people also consumed some C3 food and had two different consumption patterns for meat. Individuals consuming more meat resources had lives centered on livestock economy, whereas individuals consuming less meat resources made their living mainly by millet agriculture. It can be concluded that C3 foods in the diet of the agricultural population mainly came from wheat, which indicate that the wheat was promoted in the Jinzhong area during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. The expansion, cultivation and use of wheat in Shanxi Province had a corresponding impact on the traditional millet-based agriculture, which enriched the types of crops. Planting wheat might have accelerated the formation of early Chinese traditional agriculture during the Qin-Han dynasties. However the speed of explosion of wheat in ancient Shanxi is very slow suggesting that there were many obstacles, such as traditional milletbased agriculture and dietary habits.
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