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    15 December 1998, Volume 17 Issue 04
    Variation of upper-facial flatness, referring to the human crania from upper cave in Zhoukoudian
    Zhang Yinyun
    1998, 17(04):  247-254. 
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    To examine the variation of upper-facial flatness, the data on nasomalar angle of fossil, neolithic and modern crania from North and South China a re presented and analyzed in this paper. The results show that the antiquity of Mongoloid upper-facial flatness goes back to the age of Homo erectus, and the considerable upper-facial flatness can be regarded as a plesiomorphic character.
    A geographical difference can be seen in the neolithic cranial series: the average size of nasomalar angle in North China is slightly larger than that in South China. However, this difference is reduced in the modern cranial series.
    Compared with the data listed in this paper, the nasomalar angles of crania from the Upper Cave in Zhoukoudian are too small to be as a character of regional continuity, and an influence of gene flow is suggested.
    The first Mongoloids?: Another look at upper cave 101, Liujiang and Minatogawa 1
    Peter Brown
    1998, 17(04):  256-274. 
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    Origin of modern humans of China viewed from cranio-dental characteristics of late Homo sapiens in China
    Wu Xinzhi
    1998, 17(04):  276-282. 
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    In 1993 Brauer and I reported several cranial features that existed both in the broad spectrum o f African archaic Homo sapiens and the narrow spectrum o f archaic Chinese variation. For instance: the mo st prominent point o n the frontal squama is low er in Chinese specimens, while some are in a similarly lower position and others are higher in African crania; the inferior margin o f the cheek bones forms a curve in Chinese specimens, but varies from a curved to a straight form in the Africans; the broadest point o n the neuro cranium as seen in superior view is found in the middle third in the Chinese, but its position varies from the middle to the posterior thirds in the Africans; the meeting of the inferior margin o f the zygomatic process of the maxilla and the alveolar wall is well above the alveolar margin in the Chinese, while it varies from a low to a high position in the African specimens. We explained the narrow spectrum of genetic variation in China by genetic drift.
    In the present paper I find that in later Chinese crania , the condition of the above-mentioned features is the same as in the earlier archaic crania. Chinese populations continuously present a narrow spectrum of variation that occupies the same pa rt of a broad spectrum ( Tables 1, 2).
    According to the Eve theory, the late Homo sapiens populations of China described above w ere derived from the earlier archaic Homo sapiens in Africa via the early modern humans who evolved there. How ca n we ex plain the same narrow spectrum o f features in these earlier and later Chinese samples if the earlier did not evolve into the later? One possibility is common selection, presumably the same evolutionary response to the East Asia n environment. If this seems improbable for the above-mentioned features, genetic drift might be the most reasonable alternative explanation. It is certainly possible that drift a t a later time could limit the broad spectrum o f variation for a feature in a later East Asia n population evolving from a late Africa nancestor in the same way drift limited its variation an earlier East Asian population evolving independently from an earlier African a ncestor. But this is a very convoluted and improbable explanation for all four o f the above-mentioned traits, which I found to occupy the same narrow part of the broad Africa n spectrum in the archaic and later Chinese samples. Therefore, the Eve theory is an unlikely explanation for the origin o f modern East Asian populations. To the contrary , the similarity of the narrow spectrum of variation in archaic and more recent East Asians is best explained by descent.
    Dental evidence suggests the same explanation. Turner ( 1987, 1990) and Irish ( 1997) have show n that many dental features strongly contrast Africans and east Asians. For instance, the frequency of shovel-shaped incisors is much higher in East Asians. If the Eve theory is correct, the rapid increase in shoveling frequency poses a serious problem, while the continuation of high frequencies from earlier archaic East Asian samples to modern ones is more reasonably explained by continuous evolution in the region. In fact, all maxillary incisors dated to the Pleistocene found thus fa r in East Asia are shoveled.
    Finally , if the Eve theory w as correct it should be reflected in the Paleolithic archaeology. I would expect that early modern invaders from Western Asia would bring Mousterian culture to China, since the earliest moderns in Near East a re associated with this distinctive culture. However, there is only one site with Mousterian artifacts in the Chinese Paleolithic. This is Shuidonggou, in the northwestern pa rt of the country. There is no sharp contrast between earlier and later Paleolithic cultures in China, which should exist if replacement o f human populations had taken place.
    In short, continuous evolution of human populations in China from at least the Middle Pleistocene on is strongly supported by cranial, dental, and archaeological data.
    Meanwhile it is necessary to indicate also that in the orgin of modern humans of China there was gene flow between China and other areas which was suggested by some morphological features on the a. m. skulls o f China such as the chignon-like structures in Liujiang , Ziyang etc and more laterally facing of the antero-lateral surface of the spheno-frontal process of the zygomatic bone of the Upper Cave skull no. 102 etc. These features have never been show n in earlier skulls of China but a re typical for Neandertals. Therefore the evolutionary model of the origin of modern humans in China may be summarized as“ Continuity with hybridization” . Continuity indicates the main process and the hybridization the subsidiary one. This is the another description or sub-model of the“ Multireginal evolution hypothesis” for East Asian context. It is probably also suitable for longer course in human evolution of China.
    Different regions of the World might have different sub-models for the origins o f modern humans. More replacement with less continuity might occur in Europe than in East Asia. The sub-models for Africa and Australasia might be all different from those in both East Asia and Europe.
    Middle-small bodied apes from neogene in China and their significance
    Pan Yuerong
    1998, 17(04):  283-292. 
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    Middle-Small bodied apes from Neogene, China mainly include the Dionysopithecus shuangouensis Li, 1978 and the Platodontopithecus jianghuaiensis Gu and Lin, 1983 from Sihong, Jiangxu, Early Miocene, the Pliopithecus zhanxiangi Harrison, Delson, Guan, 1991 from Tong xian, Ning xia , Middle Miocene and the Laccopithecusrobustus Wu and Pan, 1984 from the Lufeng , Yunnan, Late Miocene as well as the Dryopithecus wuduensis from Wudu, Gansu, Late Miocene. In addition, Pliopithecus posthumus Schlosser, 1924 from Inner Mongolia, which is the heavily worn upper molar and Kansupithecus Bohlin, 1946 from Gansu, which is part of mandible, a re dubious in the morphology and age. It may apply a clue for the fossil anthropoid in the northwest of China.
    The Dionysopithecus shuangouensis is represented by a left maxillary fragment with M1 - M3 . It can be compared with Micropithecus from Early Miocene, East Africa in size and some morpho logical features. Also Platodontopithecus jianghuaiensis is only represented by five isolated molars. The dental morphology show s some features similar to Proconsulid from East Africa. Therefore, the Sihong catarrhines appear to be closely related to proconsulidae from the early Miocene of East Africa. In addition, several proconsulid isolated teeth ( Dionysopithecus sp. ) from the Kamlial Formation of northern Pakistan and the Manchar Formatio n of southern Pakistan in Early /Middle Miocene (Dionysopithecus sp. ) support a relation of East Africa. The Dionysopithecussp. is supported by the approximate contemporary of the Sihong ( Early Miocene) . The upper molars of the Dionysopithecus shuangouensis appear mo re square lingual margin than that of Micropithecus. Meanwhile, the Micropithecus leakeyorum Harrison, 1989 from the Maboko , Kenya indicated that this genus can be ex tended to Middle Miocene. We expect mo re materials to be found. Present evidence suggests the association with the major sea level low stand events at 17— 16Ma.
    Following the Sihong catarrhines, the Pliopithecus zhanxiangi which includes 8 cranio-dental specimens has been recovered from the Tong xian, Ningxia in Middle Miocene ( about 15 Ma, Tunggurian) , M N 6. The discovery of P. zhanxiangi had been conformed that the Pliopithecid had been ex tended into Asia during the early Middle Mio cene soon after earliest appearance in Europe. Small-sized ape is closely related to European pliopithecids during Middle Miocene and evolved in the Miocene in Yunnan province where extant hylobatids exists. By the way , the main morphological features of the Dianopithecus progressus Pan, 1996 from the Yuanmou hominoid site, which is described recently, are based o n the materials that could be the milk teeth o f great ape. The assessment ha s been suggested to be called off.
    The Laccopithecus robustus W u and Pan, 1984 is know n from 90 specimens including a partial cranium, mandibles, maxillae and numerousisolated teeth as well as a proximal phalanx. Laccopithecus is similar to European pliopithecines and some morphological features and to Hylobates concolor and H. syndactylus in other aspects of its dental and cranial morphology. But the proximal phalanx of Laccopithecus shows a number o f features associated with grasping and manual suspension. In addition, the phalanx displays a combination of features that a re similar to extant hylobatids, including asymmetry of the flex or ridges and transverse concavity o f the ventral surface o f the distal shaft and thick cortices ( Meldrum and Pan, 1988) . According to features above, Tyler ( 1993) analyses that if a member of the pliopithedae w ere the ancestor of extant hylobatids, it would have had g row n large, became adapted to brachiation and then grow n small again. If it is not a pliopithecid then it would be a fossil hylobatid. It would have had to have separated from the Asian great ape lines appro ximately 15 Ma and developed full brachiation, and undergone a reduction in body size and dental sexual dimorphism ( Tyler, 1993). With relation to the study of Tertiary rodents in North America that has brought to light two events during the late Miocent-Pliocene period: ( 1) An early Hemphillian event 8. 5— 6. 7± 0. 5 Ma ago and ( 2) Late Hemphillian event 6. 7± 0. 5— 4. 8± 0. 2 Ma ( Repenning , 1987) . This would suggest that the Lufeng period corresponds to the Early Hemphillian event ( Pan, 1997) . What is worthy to note is the morphological change of the Laccopithecus robustus.
    I am very grateful to Dr. Yutake Kunimatsu from the Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University for his kindly suggestion to the review of the Dianopithecus progressus and I am also grateful to Dr. David Begun from the Department of Anthropolog y , University o f Toronto, Canada and Dr. Takai Masanaru from the Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University to discuss the materials from the Yuanmou when they visited IV PP, Beijing.
    East Asia and the first migration tide of early man
    Hou Yamei, Huang Weiwen
    1998, 17(04):  293-308. 
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    A series of important archaeological sites discovered on the Eurasian continent are enumerated here including conclusive evidence and recent research results, that establish a strong “ Out-of-Africa” background of human o rig in as imagined so fa r. How ever, a discussio n o f the East-Asia origin hypothesis is also examined here.
    The first mig ration tide of early man is undoubtedly the most splendid event of the Quaternary period. Thus it naturally becomes a focal point o f Quaternary research. In accordance with current archaeological evidence some relevant knowledge can be confirmed as following:
    1. In the Old World a grand migration o f early man occurred in the early Quaternary. Human traces were not only vastly distributed in many parts o f Africa , the assumed place o f human o rig in, but also expanded to most parts of Eurasia continent, including the East Asian portion of the Arctic Circle, southeast to Java, and the Japanese Archipelago. In Europe early ma n reached northwest England in the erly stag es o f the expansion. The above-mentioned areas do not only comprise tropical and sub-tropical zones, but also a wide temperate zone.
    2. This migration started during the early Early Pleistocene, soon after the appearance o f the earliest hominids, and lasted throughout the entire Middle Pleistocene. The earliest date o f“ Out of Africa” was determined at about 1. 5 mya according to the Jordan Valley site, Ubeidya which is located at the joint of Africa and Eurasia. It is calculated that early man reached East Asia less than 1 mya and Europe much later during the Middle Pleistocene. The aforementioned knowledge is difficult to maintain when w e look at recent re- search and discoveries. Accepting 2 mya as the latest date is not a simple hypo thesis any more.
    3. Although it is argued that Homo ergaster may be the same species as Homo erectus, its age precedes Homo habilis and therefore might be the earliest actor of“ Out-of-Africa” . Even if some earlier Homo sapiens participated in this mig ratio n in the late Middle Pleistocene, the fact is that it w as Homo erectus who played the leading role in this migration. At this time little is know n of the first mig ration and many key points are still in question. For example, to date there is no defined fountainhead of the earliest migration and no definite time outline. Because Palaeoanth ropologists do not have fossil evidence showing the earliest level of human origin, “ It remains a mystery to this day” ( Wu, 1994). Al- though we are inclined to believe humans originated in Africa and appeared 3-2. 5 mya, our discussions are based o n mere hypothesis.
    1. Artifacts and human fossils found in Africa ( Hadar and Omo in Ethopia) can be back to about 2. 5 mya. They are 500 kya earlier than those know n in Asia a nd Europe.
    2. The mo re important is there comes out a numbers o f Australopithecus fossils dated as 4—1 mya in Africa. These hominids did not have too l technology but walked upright and possessed other substantial hominid characteristics, thus they are deemed “ pre-human” . Australopithecus fossils a re found only in Africa. To date, there has been no such evidence discovered in East Asia o r Euro pe. Despite this evidence, “ Out o f Africa” is only one hypo thesis for the origin o f man. The Asia origin theory also has a history of one hundred years and is held by many schola rs today. There exists evidence favorable to this theory:
    1. Asian hominoid fossils( 5 mya) of Miocene are no t only rich but existed longer than those of Africa ( 13 mya ) and Europe( 10 mya) . In other words, they are closer to “ pre-human” o r true human;
    2. Homo erectus o f Asia a re as old as that in Africa and richer than the latter.
    3. Paleolithic sites recently discovered in the Nihewan Basin of North China, are older than 1 mya. The too l technology a t these sites is quite advanced and difficult to classify as primary product of early man. JiaLanpo says that these technologies must have had a developing period before these know n dates. In accordance with this view , he supposes that there exists earlier hominid traces in China. Regarding human origin, he supports the possibility o f 4 mya as the earliest beginnings for hominids. He especially stresses the plentiful hominoid fossils found in Zhupeng-Xiaohedi o f the Yuanmou Basin including one skull, sev enteen maxillia and mandibles, and thousands of teeth. There are opposing opinions o n the determination of“ w ho they a re” and“ how old they a re” . Some accept them as human, others as “ ape” . Some place them in the Early Pleistocene, others in Pliocene o r later Miocene. No matter what conclusion it is, these materials lay in the key period for the ex- ploration o f human origin. One author of the present paper have examined the fragmentary bones and antlers in association with these fossils. They w ere mentioned as artificial products, but that is disputable. We believe deeper and more meticulous taphonamical work will clear-up the above-mentioned disputes and perhaps gain exceptional achievements.
    The driving force o f the first migration is a critical topic that requires further re- search. The global changes of climate and environment a re the mo st decisive factor of human emergence and dispersal. Mo reover, some researchers pay much attention on the “ coo ling event” o f late Pliocene and think that it not only triggered the early emergence of H. habilis and H. ergaster from Australopithecus but also spurred them to leave their Africa n home in search of new lands.
    Huojiadi-a new paleolithic site discovered in the Nihewan basin
    Feng Xingwu, Hou Yamei
    1998, 17(04):  310-316. 
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    Huojiadi Paleolithic site w as discovered in “ the Nihewan Beds” o f the Nihewan Basin in the summer of 1997. It lies 120m away north to the T1 o f the Donggutuo site. The cultural layer o f the Huojiadi site is 0. 75m in thickness and mainly consists of silt, pebbles of various sizes. 60 stone artifacts and some fragmentary bones w ere found in this layer. The stone artifacts are subdivided into 4 co res, 12 flakes, 20 scrapers, 2 points, 1 burin, 1 aw l and 20 modified chunks. Comparing with the the formerly determined ag e of Donggutuo cultural layer, it is considered that the cultral layer o f the Huojiadi site was formed about 1mya BP in the late Early Pleistocene.