The osteological study of ancient human remains is an important part of physical anthropology, which has a history of more than one hundred years in China. Significant advances have been made in the last decade. In this paper, the progress of osteological study of Holocene human remains in China is reviewed.
In the last ten years, the fields of research have expanded significantly, including population evolution history, paleopathology, skeletal abnormalities related to cultural customs, functional adaptation of long bones, paleodemography, body shape and size, climate adaptation, etc., and have accumulated many important physical data of ancient populations. The breadth and depth of the research have completely surpassed the situation that focused on ethnographic analysis in the last century.
In addition to traditional methods based on metric and non-metric traits of skull and teeth, evolutionary quantitative genetic method has been introduced into regional population history study. There are also microevolutionary analysis of craniofacial morphologies on large spatial and temporal scale. Geometric morphometrics has proved to be of great value in the study of population history. In the study of paleopathology, there are some regional comparative researches focus on stress conditions, dental diseases, trauma, etc. Particular attention has been paid to the impact of social, cultural, and subsistence background on the pattern of disease. Biomechanics and geometric morphometrics have been used to analyze the long bone function, which provides important information for the reconstruction of activity patterns of past humans. New methods such as digital photography, micro-CT and 3D laser scanning, geometric morphology and morphometric maps have played an important role in supporting these progresses.
Most studies highlight the significant advantages of multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research, which is also essential for the future study. However, there are still some fields to be explored in China, such as the osteological study of children, female and physical adaptation to the environment. Basic research of osteology also needs to be strengthened.

This paper proposes an analytical protocol for the study of early Palaeolithic stone tools. Our proposal follows a macroscopic approach and therefore does not cover the equally-important analysis of microscopic traces. Also, it focuses on techno-typological attributes of pre-Middle Palaeolithic artefact, thus avoiding entering into the discussion of the techno-morphological and regional particularities inherent to the lithic record from the Middle Stone Age onwards. Given the overall similarities of technological solutions employed during the Early Stone Age lithic assemblages and their relative typological homogeneity across the Old World, we argue that using standardized protocols in the description of stone tool collections may improve comparability and help understanding global patterns of technological behaviour across the early Palaeolithic. From this perspective, this paper will review the main theoretical approaches to the study of Early Stone Age stone assemblages and will propose analytical perspectives and terminologies in the description of flaked, detached and pounded tools, as well in the study of refits and conventions in artefact measuring and illustration.

As an important part of the lithic artifact manufacturing system, lithic raw materials exploitation reflects several attributes of prehistoric humans, including environmental cognition, resource exploitation, mobility patterns, and cultural exchanges. However, there were differences in these attributes between Africa and Western Eurasia: In the former, high-quality flint and obsidian are relatively abundant, whereas in East Asia the Paleolithic hunter-gatherers mainly exploited the locally ubiquitous vein quartz, quartzite, and ordinary chert to produce stone artifacts. This has resulted in a relatively small number of Paleolithic raw materials exploitation studies in East Asia. To better understand what is known about the lithic raw material exploitation strategies of the Paleolithic hunter-gatherers in China, here we review and summarize all previous related studies. We found that from the Lower Paleolithic to Upper Paleolithic periods, raw materials composition, source selection and exploitation methods changed substantially. During the Lower Paleolithic period, hunter-gatherers mainly exploited local vein quartz, quartzite and flint from riverbeds, bedrock outcrops and weathered outcrops near residential or camp sites. The quality of these raw materials was usually unexceptional, and the exploitation distances were generally within 10 km. During the Middle Paleolithic period, lithic raw material types increased in number and they varied between regions. Although the quality of these raw materials was also generally unexceptional, high-quality flint began to appear at some sites, albeit not in dominant proportions. Local procurement within 10 km still dominated during this period, while long-distance procurement occurred occasionally. The hunter-gatherers during this period clearly had an improved ability to recognize and utilize local raw materials, and they relied increasingly on high-quality raw materials. During the Upper Paleolithic period, the types of lithic raw materials increased greatly, and there was a marked decrease in the proportion of vein quartz and quartzite, and a significant increase in the proportion of high-quality raw materials, like flint, chalcedony, siliceous rock and volcanic tuff, and there was also the first appearance of obsidian. Long-distance procurement of high-quality raw materials in northern China became more common, but in southern China local procurement from riverbeds still dominated. The emergence of specialized raw material exploitation and lithic production workshop sites is another distinctive feature of this period. These temporal and spatial changes in Paleolithic raw material exploitation strategies in China were likely the result of multiple factors, including the mobility patterns of hunter-gatherers, advances in stone tool production technologies, and climate changes. In summary, the study of Paleolithic raw material exploitation strategy is critical for understanding human behavior, population interactions and migrations. Therefore, more intensive and systematic studies of Paleolithic raw materials exploitation in China are needed in the future.

The ancient cultural practice of cranial modification is widely distributed throughout the world. It has a highly symbolic visual feature and is related to various societal aspects such as hierarchy, status, aesthetics and religion. Cranial modification can also be considered a result of infant-rearing behaviors in ancient times. The earliest clue to cranial modification in China came from the Paleolithic, but it was not until the Neolithic that it became a widespread cultural practice later flourishing. Cranial modification in prehistoric China is classified into tabular-annular modification system and occipital modification system. Both originating locally, these two systems have different appearances, distributional ranges, and developmental processes. Tabular-annular modification, originated in northern Northeast China, exhibits prominent cosmetic features and requires complex technology. It is considered to be the earliest known conscious cranial modification practice and may have continued into the historic period. The origin of this tabular-annular modification may be correlated with unique geographic and environmental resources of Northeast China along with a growing complexity of gathering-fishing-hunting society, a gender division of labor, and the hierarchical differentiation existent in a transitional phase from Paleolithic to Neolithic. Occipital modification, centered in the Yellow River basin, is characterized with less pronounced modifications and probably required simpler techniques. It was once widely popular in the late and final Neolithic. Occipital modification may derive from behaviors of infant-rearing in northern agricultural societies and gradually evolved into a conscious cultural practice. Its decline at the end of the Neolithic and eventual disappearance after the Bronze Age was closely connected to societal changes occurring during the Late Neolithic, especially in the Longshan-Erlitou cultures. Both tabular-annular and occipital modification systems vary in skull morphology and measurement data suggesting that modification tools, techniques, and procedures were diverse. Existing studies on cranial modification are dominated by qualitative descriptions, with detailed observation and more systematic measurements necessary for future studies, as well as more refined archaeological contextual information.

The question of human origins is one of the ultimate questions of human existence, and the study of human origins touches on many philosophical issues. Based on recent advances in paleoanthropology and biology, this paper briefly reviews the history of human origins and evolution, and discusses philosophical issues such as the nature of being, the purpose and meaning of human existence, divine creation and evolution, the driving force of human origins and evolution, the nature and role of labor, and contingency and necessity. Counting from the origin of primates, human evolution has a history of at least 56 million years, or 7-8 million years if we count from the human-ape divergence in the sense of evolutionary biology. As a class of biological organisms and the bearer of the subjective world, the nature of being has always been a very complex subject, and it is even impossible for most people to have a recognized answer. From a biological point of view, human existence is essentially the existence of nature. Human beings are a part of the nature and greatly influence the existence of the nature. The characteristics of human beings that distinguish them from primates are the essential characteristics of human beings in the biological sense. In the study of human origins, the question of the nature of being should be examined from different angles of the various sub-disciplines of biology. The purpose and meaning of human existence at the philosophical level are not scientific questions, and the test standards of scientific research can not be applied to it. If human existence has a purpose and meaning, then that purpose and meaning is “existence”. Although traditional creationism is no longer a major part of the human knowledge system, the ideas represented by intelligent design still attempt to answer the questions of whether or not supernatural forces and intelligent things exist, and why they exist. As a living creature, the origin and development of human beings are not fundamentally different from those of other living creatures, and the driving force of human evolution is the result of a combination of intrinsic genetic factors and extrinsic environmental factors. There have been heated discussions about the role of “labor” in the origin and evolution of human beings, but from the empirical evidence of modern paleontology, archaeology, zoology, behavior, ecology, and other disciplines, it is impossible to give an accurate definition of “labor”. It can be argued that human labor itself is a state of behavior exhibited by humans in the process of survival and reproduction. The accumulation of contingent events is recorded, that is, the process of obtaining a quantitative change, and when the quantitative change accumulates to a level where order and hierarchy can be recognized, the change can be defined as qualitative change. Qualitative change in human evolution also occurs when the accumulation of countless contingent changes reaches a definable level. Self-awareness and thinking are not unique to humans. The development of complex systems in the universe with the ability to think is a necessity of material development, but the exact form in which it appears in things is controlled by chance.

The recent studies of newly discovered Pongo fossils with precise absolute age brackets have deepened our understanding of their taxonomy, teeth size evolution and its relationship with environmental changes in southern China during the Pleistocene period. In the present study, we summarize the representative Pleistocene orangutan fossil-bearing sites in southern China and discuss the latest research progress on orangutan fossils. The orangutan fossil found so far and the chronological results indicate that orangutans first appeared in southern China in the early Early Pleistocene and lasted until the Late Pleistocene. From the results of the current studies, at least two species of orangutans may have existed in southern China during the Pleistocene period. One of them is Pongo weidenreichi that is characterized by its overall larger dental size, a high frequency of lingual cingulum remnants and a low frequency of moderate to heavy wrinkling on its molars. P. weidenreichi survived in southern China from the Early Pleistocene to the Late Pleistocene. The other orangutan species, Pongo devosi, may have first appeared in southern China during the late Middle Pleistocene. Compared with P. weidenreichi, P. devosi is distinguished by its relatively smaller overall dental size, relatively lower frequency of lingual cingulum remnants on its molars, the well-developed lingual pillar and lingual cingulum on its incisors and relatively higher frequency of moderate to heavy wrinkling on its molars. More fossil evidences are needed to confirm the relationship between P. weidenreichi and P. devosi in future study. The teeth size evolution of Pleistocene orangutans shows obvious stages. Metric data of orangutan teeth fossils (>1000) from mainland Southeast Asia sites reveal that the reduction in the size of orangutan teeth fossils occurred mainly from the Early Pleistocene to the Middle Pleistocene. And orangutan teeth fossils remained relatively stable in their sizes from the Middle to Late Pleistocene. The stable carbon isotope data of Early to Late Pleistocene mammalian fossil teeth from mainland Southeast Asia can be used to reconstruct changes in the paleoenvironment and could provide some clues to interpret dental size variation of Pongo assemblages in a broader temporal and environmental context. The carbon isotope data show that dental size reduction in orangutan fossils is closely linked to environmental changes. The dental size changes in orangutans appear to coincide with the expansion of savannah biomes and the contraction of forest habitats from the Middle Pleistocene onward.

During the Upper Paleolithic age, the anatomically modern human survived the extreme climatic conditions including the Heinrich event and the Last Glacial Maximum, and colonized all the continents except Antarctica, which displayed strong adaptability. In Northeast Asia, microblade technology emerged as a pivotal factor in human adaptation to climate and environment during the Upper Paleolithic period. Microblade technology has garnered widespread attention and sparked a considerable amount of discussion and debates. Among the academic research on microblade technology, its origins, technological changes, and regional distribution of different technology types are the most critical issues. The development of microblade technology can be divided into three stages: initial, developed and simple. Diverse interpretations of the concept and essence of microblade technology led to varied perspectives regarding its origins. If pressure flaking is a fundamental element of microblade technology, it may result in the potential omission of early-stage products because practically it is impossible to accurately identify each pressure product. In contrast, the utilization of pressure flaking is a crucial factor in the developed stage of microblade technology. Although the standardizations of microblades of different stages are not the same, their features of microlithization determine that their function and use, possibly in composite tools, are similar. Consequently, to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of microblade technology and its evolutionary trajectory, the research of microblade technology should focus on the form of microcores and microblades, the technology process, the usage of microblades and the analysis of reduction strategies. The microblade technology showed a distinct dichotomous pattern during the last glacial maximum (LGM). While bifacially prepared wedge-shaped cores were prevalent in the “northern area” mainly formed by northeastern China, the Russian Far East and northern Japan, boat-shaped cores dominated North China. After the LGM, the improvement of climatic conditions led to the cultural integration between the two regions, but distinct traditions still existed, i.e., narrow wedge-shaped microcores continued dominating the “northern area” and wide ones remained popular in North China. The origin, development and division of microblade technology show significant correlations with cold events such as H3, H2 and LGM, indicating that climatic and environmental factors played critical roles in the change of adaptive strategies of prehistoric humans. The varying distribution patterns of microblade technology in different regions highlight the influence of local environmental conditions and cultural interactions on technological innovation. The persistence of distinct traditions even after cultural integration underscores the enduring impact of historical and geographical factors on the development and transmission of microblade technology.

Anthropometry is an important branch of anthropology. This paper begins from the initial stage of anthropometry in the 18th century, introduces the main European scientists who promoted the development of anthropometry and several important international conferences of prehistoric anthropology and archaeology, and presents the new methods of anthropometry in recent years. Regarding the beginnings and development of anthropometry in China, after introducing the work of foreign scholars (Ryuzo Torii, Sergei M. Shirokogoroff, etc.), this paper focuses on Mr. Wu Dingliang’s pioneering work in Chinese physical anthropology. This paper analyzes the reasons for the rapid development of anthropometry in the 1980s, and reviews the initial period, vigorous development period, bottleneck period and leap-forward development period of China’s anthropometry research in the past 40 years. The author discusses the significance and function of the living population in anthropometry.

The evolution and widespread of Homo sapiens is a key event in the human evolution history. By the end of the Late Pleistocene, our species was distributed across every continent except Antarctica, and adopted to varied ecological niches. The behavioral complexity and the cultural diversity are believed to act as one of the most pronounced abilities to get success. The fossil and genetic evidence were applied to discuss the extinction of archaic populations, such as the Denisovans and the Neanderthals and their complicated interbreeding with Homo sapiens. The archaeological records served on the discussion about the behavioral evolution from the emergence of “behavioral complexity or modernity’ to the fully developed modern human ‘behavioral package’. In this paper, we reviewed the discussion on the modern human behavioral evolution in the western side of the Old World. Based on the African archaeological records, the behavioral origins of Homo sapiens can be traced back to the first material culture produced by our species in Africa and phased as Middle Stone Age (MSA); while the western Eurasian records the behavioral complexity raised with the origin of Neanderthals and phased as Middle Paleolithic (MP). Then around the middle of Late Pleistocene, as the wide distribution of Homo sapiens and the extinction of archaic populations, a complete ‘modernity package’ finally developed and shows more cultural diversity globally, which including the advanced lithic tools (blade, microblade), bone tools, increased geographic range, specialized hunting, the use of aquatic resources, long distance exchange, systematic processing and use of pigment, and art and decoration.

However, recently in Eastern Asia efforts were made to explore the complexity of the ‘behavioral complexity or modernity’, the technological innovations and behavioral adaptations process are still barely known. The lithic assemblages have long been regarded as simple, conservative technologies, and major changes in raw material procurement, core reduction, retouch and typology tended to be clustered until 40 kaBP, without a ‘middle phase’ showing distinguished transition. These years, facing with the high degree of hominin morphological variability which has been suggested by recent fossil and genetic evidence, such as the early modern humans, Denisovans, H. longi, and some other unassigned taxons (Xujiayao and Xuchang), and growing new archeological data, we need to rethink the ‘behavioral modernity’ process happened in Eastern Aisa and its application to the evolutionary history of our species worldwide.

Diploic veins are a complex vascular network within the cranial wall, playing a significant role in human cranial blood circulation. Since their discovery in the early 18th century, research on this structure has been limited by the traditional dissection methods, leaving many questions unresolved regarding their morphological variations, functions, and implications for human evolution. Recent advances in CT and MR imaging and newly-developed 3D reconstruction techniques have overcome previous bottlenecks, which can detect the morphological details of these vascular structures. New studies have revealed that traditional classifications of diploic veins lack broad applicability, while also redefining their distribution areas and patterns and identifying functional roles in cerebrospinal fluid circulation and cerebral thermoregulation, which may be essential to human brain physiology. Research on hominin fossils has further highlighted interspecific differences in diploic veins, offering potential applications in future taxonomical discussions. The current evidence indicates that the diploic vascular pattern can identify Neanderthal cranial fossils from other Homo species, and it also help differentiate non-human primates from hominins. Additionally, diploic veins may have contributed to human brain evolution, with possible links to brain volume and regional endocast morphology. To clarify the mechanism behind the variation and evolution, further studies are warranted to investigate the diploic vascular morphology and physiology in large extant human populations and also in hominin fossils. This paper reviews the history of diploic vein research and synthesizes recent advancements, summarizing methodologies, technical challenges, and future directions to promote further studies in this field.

Paleodemography is the scientific analysis of past population dynamics, utilizing archaeological human skeletal remains for reconstruction. This review traces the methodological evolution of these techniques on a global scale, with a particular emphasis on China, highlighting significant paradigm shifts in addressing two fundamental challenges: age estimation bias and the representativeness of skeletal samples.

Paleodemography first emerged in the 1930s, when early studies were largely confined to rudimentary statistical descriptions and comparative analyses of population sex and age structures. In the 1960s, the introduction of the life table method marked a turning point, eventually establishing it as the predominant analytical approach. However, in 1982, the methodological foundations of the field were profoundly challenged by a seminal critique that exposed systematic errors in adult age estimation. Critically, the critique revealed the “age mimicry” effect, whereby estimated age distributions unintentionally replicate those of reference samples. This revelation triggered four decades of innovation: Bayesian statistics became instrumental in refining age estimation methods. These efforts culminated in the 1999 Rostock Manifesto, which advocated for probabilistic methods. Transition Analysis (TA) emerged as a pivotal technique, leveraging the progression of skeletal traits to effectively mitigate bias. Concurrently, a fundamental shift occurred in the field of demographic modeling, transitioning from the life table method to parametric hazard models. Additionally, proxy indicators (e.g., D_5-14/D₂₀₊, D_0-14/D ratios) were developed to indirectly estimate fertility and growth rates when direct evidence was unavailable.

In China, paleodemographic research began in the 1980s, focusing on analyses of Neolithic cemeteries’ sex ratios and age structures. Early interpretations often attributed observed imbalances to sociocultural factors, such as reproductive risks and gender differences in labor intensity. During the 1990s and 2000s, research expanded to include regional syntheses, exploring the correlations between demographic patterns and social complexity, agricultural intensification, and environmental stress. Life table analysis gained prominence during this period, particularly for estimating life expectancy. Since 2010, methodological sophistication has accelerated: model life tables have been adjusted to correct for infant underrepresentation; Bayesian-inspired age estimation and transition analysis have been experimentally applied; and fertility proxies have been employed to test hypotheses about agricultural transitions. Increasingly, studies have adopted integrated approaches, combining demographic data with paleopathology and settlement patterns to investigate health disparities, conflict, and population dynamics.

Recent advancements in methods and technologies have further refined age estimation techniques. including Transition Analysis software (TA2, TA3) for Bayesian-based adult aging, reducing mimicry bias and enhancing accuracy. Complementing these developments, improvements in demographic modeling have seen parametric hazard models (e.g., Gompertz-Makeham, Siler) replace traditional life tables for mortality analysis, while fertility proxies were used to estimate population growth. Semi-parametric and non-parametric models have also been applied in paleodemography.

This review also examines four pivotal theoretical issues. First, the application of the uniformitarian hypothesis to paleodemography raises questions about its validity, particularly in light of the osteological paradox— the observation that skeletal samples may not accurately reflect living populations due to factors such as selective mortality and heterogeneity in physical health. Second, the conceptual misalignment between death assemblages and living populations poses a significant challenge. Third, the finding that mean age-at-death primarily reflects fertility levels rather than mortality has reshaped interpretations. Finally, the Neolithic Demographic Transition theory, an archaeological framework derived from paleodemographic research, explains how agricultural practices drove demographic changes, such as increased fertility.

The future of paleodemography in China holds substantial promise. To fully realize this potential, it is essential to further integrate interdisciplinary research, including aDNA and isotope studies, into migration research. Leveraging China’s extensive archaeological record will enable rigorous evaluations of global theories, such as the Osteological Paradox and the Neolithic Demographic Transition. Crucially, future research would actively develop indigenous theoretical frameworks rooted in China’s unique archaeological and historical contexts, thereby advancing the discipline’s localized development. Sustained interdisciplinary collaboration remains vital for methodological innovation and robust demographic reconstruction.

The Acheulean, characterized by the emergence of Large Cutting Tools (LCTs), represents a critical stage in the technological evolution of human history. The diffusion of this technology across the Old World, particularly its eastward expansion and interactions in eastern Eurasia, has long been a hot topic in Paleolithic archaeology. In recent years, the diversified research on the Acheulean technocomplex provide new approaches for understanding the dispersal of Acheulean population, technological innovation, cognitive ability and behavioral complexity. Since the new century, a series of research has been conducted on Chinese sites bearing large cutting tools (LCTs), while debates over the character and origins of these assemblages continue. This paper reviews the technological attributes and evolutionary trajectory of the Acheulean, we argue that while LCTs are characteristic, they represent a sufficient but not necessary component of the broader Acheulean technocomplex concept. This technocomplex encompasses diverse technical behaviors driven by advanced cognitive abilities, including sophisticated techniques found in small debitage assemblages like structured flaking and prepared core technology, which distinguish it from earlier Oldowan industries in Africa. The modern understanding shifts from a focus purely on tool morphology and frequency to one emphasizing the production technologies, operational sequences, and the underlying cognitive abilities required for their manufacture, often examined through methods such as the chaîne opératoire.

The presence of Acheulean technology in East Asia, particularly China, has been a subject of debate. LCTs from China tend to be fewer, less frequent, and morphologically rougher than their Western counterparts, raising questions about cultural diffusion versus independent development. We propose that the concept of the Acheulean technocomplex offers a more inclusive framework for understanding these assemblages. This perspective allows for regional variability in tool forms as adaptations to local environments and resources, while recognizing shared technical and cognitive capabilities. Importantly, we highlight the significance of small debitage within the East Asian context. Using the Cenjiawan site (~1.1 Ma) as an example, we show evidence of prepared core technology in producing small tools, indicating sophisticated technological and cognitive abilities similar to those associated with the Western Acheulean, even in the absence of LCTs. This suggests that hominins with comparable technological capacities were present in East Asia before the Middle Pleistocene.

We recommend that future research in China prioritize the systematic study of lithic operational sequences and the knapping skills they reflect, rather than being overly reliant on morphological typologies of final products. By examining both LCT-bearing sites and those with advanced small debitage technologies within the framework of the Acheulean technocomplex, we can have broader insights into the nature and origins of the stone tool tradition in East Asia and its role in global patterns of human dispersal and behavioral evolution.