Table of Content

15 December 2016, Volume 35 Issue 04

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New evidences of in-situ using fire by the Peking Man at Zhoukoudian Locality 1: Research history, controversy and new development

GAO Xing, ZHANG Shuangquan, ZHANG Yue, CHEN Fuyou

2016, 35(04):  481-492. 

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Evidences for “controlled use of fire” by the Peking Man(Homo erectus pekinensis) from Zhoukoudian (ZKD) Locality 1 is one of the most important discoveries at the site during its early excavations. It was widely accepted for a long period of time that ZKD provided the earliest such record in human evolutionary history. However, since the mid-1980s, this notion has been repeatedly challenged and early evidences were questioned. Following limited taphonomic and geochemical studies that were conducted in the 1990s debates over controlled use of fire at ZKD locality 1 increased given their negative conclusions. ZKD is a very complicated site with intricate cave deposits, the remaining Western Section may hardly represent its original structure and taphonomic condition of the cave occupied by the Peking Man in the Middle Pleistocene, and contemporary researchers may never have the same opportunity with investigators who worked at the site in the 1920s-1930s so as to observe first-handed remains and features fresh and intact left by the Peking Man in various horizons. Thus, result of limited sampling and analysis on the surface of extant section can hardly refute the conclusions reached in the past which was based on a series of systematic investigations. In particular, some faults of negations in debates were largely based on hypothetical and speculative assumptions stemming from a theoretical shift concerning conceptions of early hominin subsistence capabilities, including hunting big game and using fire. A thorough review of original ZKD field notes, excavation reports and research papers leads to the conclusion that the unearthed fossil and cultural materials and traces of fire-use activities in certain horizons at the site are abundant, unambiguous and adequately supportive. A new set of field investigations and laboratory analyses initiated at the site in 2009 have yielded new and solid evidences to support the early establishment of in situ use of fire by the Peking Man. Our current knowledge indicates that Layer 4 at ZKD Locality 1 contains unambiguous evidences for in situ use of fire, including hearth structures. Future excavation and research conducted on the lower horizons may likely reveal similar evidence.

Site formation processes and lithic technology at the MDG-E5 Paleolithic site in the Nihewan Basin

PEI Shuwen, JIA Zhenxiu, MA Dongdong, MA Ning, LI Xiaoli

2016, 35(04):  493-508. 

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The Madigou (MDG) site provides a new archaeological sequence for the Early Pleistocene in the Nihewan basin, North China. This paper reports on the archaeological sequence, which is attributed to an Oldowan-like (Mode 1) industry. Emphasis is placed on analysis of site formation processes and lithic technology at the MDG-E5 Paleolithic site within the MDG site complex. The Madigou site complex is located in the key area of Early Pleistocene human occupation at the Cenjiawan Platform in the eastern part of the Nihewan basin. The MDG-E5 site was discovered in 2007 and was excavated by staff from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2014. A total of 22 m2 was exposed and 143 stone artifacts, eight mammalian fossil fragments, and 235 cobbles were unearthed from the site. The stratigraphic profile, 8 m in thickness, is comprised of grey-yellow, grey, and grey green fine sands, silts, and clays. The archaeological materials were located in grey-grey yellow fine sands and silts. The site is characterized by the concentrated distribution of gravels (roughly 4-8cm diameter) in which small numbers of stone artifacts are contained relative to dozens of cobbles and pebbles that are varied but size-sorted by hydraulic action. The current study thus indicates that MDG-E5 has been preserved in a secondary context in a lakeshore environment. Multiple lines of evidence include the distribution patterns of archaeological and natural lithic materials, size sorting, artifact abrasion, and spatial patterning. The MDG-E5 archaeological deposits most probably were buried in lake margins deposits of fine sands and silts that were moderately transported and disturbed by relatively moderate energy hydraulic forces. This indicates that the MDG-E5 artifacts have been buried and re-worked by natural agencies and are not in primary context. Technologically, lithic raw materials were procured from an adjacent area ca 1km2 in size, in which silicious dolomite, chert, and volcanic lava dominate the rock types. The flaking technique is direct hard hammer percussion without core preparation, and modified pieces casually retouched by direct hammer percussion. The flaking strategies morphology of the stone artifacts were simple, producing a Mode 1 assemblage which most resembles the Oldowan industry of Africa. Preliminary paleo-magnetic dating indicates that early humans colonized the site most probably at 1.20 Ma. Excavation of the MDG-E5 site is particularly significant for study of site formation processes, which helps us to interpret the adaptive behaviors of hominins in the Nihewan basin during the Early Pleistocene.

A preliminary report on the excavation of Erdaoliang Upper Paleolithic site in the Nihewan Basin

LI Gang, REN Xueyan, LI Jun

2016, 35(04):  509-521. 

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There are many Upper Paleolithic sites in the Nihewan basin. Microblade technologies, characterized by wedge-shaped cores and conical cores, along with their cultural connotations, make the Nihewan basin a key area for study of microblade technology in North China. In July, 2002, the Erdaoliang site was discovered by the authors in the north margin of the Cenjiawan Platform in the eastern part of Nihewan basin. The site was excavated by the same archaeological team. The excavation exposed an area of 31 m2. More than 2000 archaeological remains, including stone artifacts, animal fossils, and bone artifacts, were unearthed from the site. The site was buried in the upper part of the 3rd terrace of the right bank of the Sanggan River. The stratigraphic profile consists mainly of alluvial deposits, which are capped by loess. The archaeological layer, probably disturbed by gentle river flow, has a total thickness of 0.2 m. Lithic raw materials were locally available from ancient riverbeds or the floodplain of the Sanggan River, and chert is the predominant raw material type. The flaking techniques can be classified as both direct and indirect percussion. Cores and flakes were made by direct percussion, while the boat-shaped cores and microblades were manufactured by indirect percussion. Three retouched tools are identified, namely burins, scrapers, and backed knives. Judging from the characteristics of the lithic assemblage, the cultural tradition of Erdaoliang site can be assigned to microblade technology. 14C dating of a bone fragment yielded an age of 18085±235 BP, which places the site in the Upper Paleolithic. The lithic technology of Erdaoliang site is the first discovery of microblade technology charactersied by boat-shaped cores in the Nihewan basin. Furthermore, it can be deduced that the analysis of the Erdaoliang archaeological remains will have great significance for study of different microblade technology traditions, early human dispersal, and technological exchange in the Nihewan basin in North China

A study of the stone tools from the Haminmangha site

CHEN Shengqian,YANG Kuan, LI Binsen, ZHU Yonggang, JI Ping

2016, 35(04):  522-536. 

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The Haminmangha site is known for several hundred human skeletons which were messily piled in house pits and scattered in the site. It points towards a disastrous event. To understand the reason for the prehistoric tragedy, it is necessary to study the mode of production and cultural-ecological relationship of the native residents. So far it is not possible to directly draw a conclusion from the studies on the human skeleton remains because of bad conditions of human bones and ongoing preservation plan which prohibits moving any bones off their original positions. Therefore, it is through functional analysis of stone tools that we may break a new path to study these questions. The assemblage of stone tools contains few farming tools. The digging tool, stone pick (originally named Si, a farming tool used like spade), is characterized by a narrow and long form. Its use wear strongly suggests that they were actually using like a hoe on the sandy field. Our experimental study indicates that it is best for digging deep pits about forty centimeters, although it is also workable in other digging activities. In contrast to few farming tools, this assemblage includes a number of diverse tools for food processing, such as the classic toolkit of mortar and pestle, three other types of pestles, as well as nut-cracking tools. These tools are definitely related to diverse food processing activities which especially involve with plant roots and nut fruits. Arrowheads and knives fixed in bone handles that are finely manufactured more likely relate to hunting, and represent a significant part in their economy. The harvesting tools include only one polished stone knife and several shell knives. The existence of these tools correlating with the observation on the grounding tools such as mortar and pestle suggests that food production was probably practiced at the time, but its importance was limited in the economic composition of Haminmangha. Combining with the cultural-historical background and environmental conditions of the site, we can conclude that ancient residents of Haminmangha depended limitedly on farming, but much more on hunting and gathering, especially on the utilization of plant roots and nut fruits. They colonized a very marginal environment for farming, and chose a settlement pattern unmatched with their economic basis. It somehow sowed seeds for the disaster. The case of Haminmangha represented a typically failed adaptation in a marginal environment. When the Hongshan culture collapsed, population seemed to disperse and part of them entered this strange land. Its relatively complex social organization still required a highly concentrated settlement pattern which was very contradictory with the mixed economy that needs a more mobile residential organization. People therefore had to use broad spectrum food resources in their limited territory, and then the tragedy occurred when they used some dangerous resources and got infected by some plague. This research focuses on the stone tool assemblage of one site with a contextual approach. It stresses to understand the utilization of stone tools associated with cultural-ecological relationships. Our goal is not only to determine the function of a type of tools, but to explore the further systematic significance of cultural adaptation. Besides the research on the stone tools, we also recommend this approach in the analysis of lithic assemblages, especially those from the Neolithic sites.

Technology and functions of the obsidian burins from the Helong Dadong site in Jilin province

ZHAO Hailong, XU Ting, MA Dongdong

2016, 35(04):  537-548. 

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This paper analyses the technology and technological procedures of burin manufacture and puts forward a hypothesis that the bevel-edge was the main uitilised edge of the beveled burin. There are some obsidian bevel-burins in the Dadong site in the Changbai Mountain region, Jilin province. It has been found that three kinds of micro-wear existed on the beveled edge of these burins, along with combinations of micro-wear. These wear traces are parallel lines, blunting of edges, and flake scarring. Experimental burins were made of obsidian raw materials with burin technology, and they were used to work different objects such as wood, leather, bamboo and antler. As the beveled edges are used for scraping and planing, the same three kinds of use-wear as found on the Dadong burins appear on the edges of the experimental tools. Therefore the hypothesis is confirmed that the beveled edge was the functional part of these burins. In addition, based on analysis of the smooth surfaces of worked antler, the bevel-burin’s main function is judged to be fine-scale work. This conclusion is reasonable enough to suggest the application of grinding in the origin of bone artifact technology.

Stone mining hammers of Jiyanyao turquoise mining sites

XIAN Yiheng, LI Yanxiang, YANG Qihuang

2016, 35(04):  549-560. 

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The grooved-shaped stone hammers discovered at Jiyanyao site in Hekou village, Luonan County, Shaanxi Province, have made scholars puzzled about the cultural character of this site. To solve this problem, authors have conducted a series of archaeological surveys and laboratory analyses, finding that the hammers are actually not Paleolithic remains, but possible the ancient tools for mining turquoise. The grindstones and stone balls unearthed from the site might constitute a tool kit for processing stone hammers. By analyzing these stone hammers through typology, authors have divided them into two types, namely grooved-shaped hammers(Type A) and non-grooved-shaped hammers(Type B). It is likely that the groove was specially made for binding the stone hammer to the wooden handle tightly. The comparison of domestic and international stone hammers shows that this kind of hammers has generally been discovered in the surrounding area of ancient mines during the Bronze Age. Therefore, this kind of hammers should be a mining tool, and can be direct evidence for determining the date of mining sites. In general, the stone hammers from Jiyanyao site should belong to the Bronze Age. Compared with stone hammers from other sites, Jiyanyao stone hammers are smaller, more exquisite, and have a narrow and long shape. It is considered that this kind of specialty is relevant to the character of the turquoise lode.

The early Pleistocene murid rodents from Juyuan cave of Boyue mountain, Chongzuo, Guangxi of southern China

WANG Yuan, QIN Dagong, YAN Yaling, JIN Changzhu

2016, 35(04):  561-571. 

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Recently, the large-primate fossil teeth collected from Juyuan Cave of Boyue Mountain, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of southern China, have been identified as Gigantopithecus blacki. The systematic excavations in Juyuan Cave have unearthed a plethora of higher primate remains, including G. blacki, Pongo weidenreichi and Nomascus sp., as well as other abundant mammalian fossils. The Juyuan fauna, consisting of 45 mammalian species (such as Sinomastodon yangziensis, Ailuropoda wulingshanensis, Stegodon huananensis, and Rhinoceros fusuiensis), is a typical early Pleistocene Gigantopithecus-Sinomastodon fauna of southern China. This paper describes the murid rodents from this cave. There are 6 genera and 8 species, of which 5 species are extinct: Mus cf. M. pahari, Apodemus cf. A. peninsulae, Hapalomys gracilis, Hapalomys angustidens, Niviventer preconfucianus, Niviventer andersoni, Leopoldamys edwardsioides, and Rattus cf. R. pristinus. The morphological comparisons indicate that the murid species from Juyuan Cave are more primitive than those from Sanhe Cave of the middle Early Pleistocene within the same area, but resemble those from Longgupo site, Wushan, Chongqing of the early Early Pleistocene, implying their contemporaneity. Paleomagnetic dating of the fossil-bearing strata in Juyuan Cave gives an age of approximately 1.8 Ma BP. The murids assemblage from Juyuan Cave is mostly made up of arboreal or semi arboreal species within the Oriental realm preferring the forest or grassland environment. Consequently, the paleoecological setting at Juyuan Cave can be reconstructed as tropical-subtropical forest and shrub. The study on murid remains from Juyuan Cave of Boyue Mountain, Guangxi greatly enriches the micromammalian record of the early Pleistocene Gigantopithecus-Sinomastodon fauna of southern China. This new data provide important evidence to understand the division of Quaternary biostratigraphy in southern China.

A research on the body mass of ancient human in Warring States Period from the Tuchengzi cemetery, Inner Mongolia

ZHANG Qun, ZHANG Quanchao, SUN Zhichao, GUO Lin, LI Qiang, ZHU Hong

2016, 35(04):  572-584. 

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As an important method of physical anthropological study, body mass estimation provide a new approach to understand the body shape of ancient population. Based on the approaches of biomechanical and morphometric, four different formulae which based on different populations were used. This paper describes the research on body mass estimation of 34 skeletal samples of Warring States period unearthed from Tuchengzi cemetery in Inner Mongolia in 2005. Through statistic analysis, the result shows that the average body mass of Tuchengzi in male is 67.21kg, while the result in female is 54.63kg, there exists a significant difference between genders. Comparing with the data of Jinggouzi, an ancient population lived simultaneously in the same region, the average body mass of Tuchengzi group is much heavier than the Jinggouzi group, so does the distribution in the whole population while the difference in female group is not significant. Combining with the result of archaeological and historical research, it supports the verdict that the Tuchengzi population is guarder who were guarding city there.

Analyzing enamel-dentine junction(EDJ) shape in recent Chinese upper premolars using 3D geometric morphometrics

ZHOU Mi, CUI Yaming, XING Song

2016, 35(04):  585-597. 

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The enamel-dentine junction (EDJ) is the developmental precursor of morphology on the outer enamel surface (OES). The EDJ morphology is more closely related to the genetic basis than the OES. This study employs micro-CT (micro-computed tomography) to complete scan of 100 isolated upper premolars (50 P3s and 50 P4s) of recent modern human with an agricultural background collected from central China. These specimens belonged to four periods of history, i.e. the Neolithic Age, the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the Qin/Han Dynasties-Song/Yuan Dynasties, and the Ming/Qing Dynasties. After reconstructing the EDJ surfaces, 2 landmarks were defined on the dental horn (of buccal and lingual cusps) and 28 semi-landmarks along the occlusal border for each specimen. We then performed 3D geometric morphometric analyses to quantify the EDJ shapes. The result indicates that the lingual region exhibits a slightly higher degree of variability than that buccal region. Within the population, the main variation is expressed in following ways: 1) the depth of occlusal basin increase with the buccal and lingual cusps moving towards each other; 2) the relative dentine horn height of buccal and lingual cusps varies; 3) the mesiodistal dimension of the lingual cusps varies; 4) the degree of symmetry in the occlusal shape increase or reduce when the mesial ridge of buccal cusp shifted outwards or inwards; and 5) the MD/BL value of the whole occlusal area varies. To further explore the component of those variations abovementioned, we carried out analyses of sexual dimorphism and temporal micro-evolution. Comparison of mean shape shows that male specimens are inclined to have a relatively wider lingual region and a lower mesial ridge of buccal cusp. Nevertheless, both principal component analysis and Permutation test don’t present a significant sexual dimorphism in the EDJ shape explored here. Likewise, specimens from four periods of history are not differentiated from each other. It suggests that the pattern of variation present in the Chinese recent modern human could be at least traced back to the early Holocene. The future analysis of geometric morphometrics on the EDJ surface will continue to explore the difference between specimens of different physical sex, territories, and evolutional stage through expanding the sample size of dental materials.

A study of physical anthropology of the Dong people in Hubei Province

PI Jianhui, TAN Juan, XIANG Debiao, WEI Sili, LEI Mingzhi, WU Yizhong

2016, 35(04):  598-607. 

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Ninety physical characteristics (32 observed, 58 measured) on 448 adults (232 males and 216 females) of the Dong people in Hubei Province were investigated. Forty physical indices were calculated, and the distributions of stature and typical physical traits on ten indices were determined. The results are as follows. 1) Occurrence rates of upper eyelid eyefold, Mongoloid fold and the Darwin nodule were 88.11%, 47.13% and 82.14%, respectively. In most people, the forehead hairline was shaped as a triangle. The zygoma and chin were not very prominent. Hair was thick, black and straight. The upper eyelid eyefold was high. The eye opening was of medium height with it’s lateral angle higher than the medial angle. The nasal root was high and the alae nasi was of medium height. The nasal bridge was straight in males and concave in females. The nasal base and nasal tip were upturned. The upper lip was protruding and went beyond the lower lip. The gap of the mouth was wide in males and medium in females. Total thickness of the upper lip and lower lip was thick. The auricle was mostly oval or egg-shaped but the lobulus auriulae was mostly round. Most people were short in stature with typical physical characteristics of thin and tall, middle trunk, narrow shoulder breadth, mesatiskelic, wide hands, brachycephaly, hypsicephaly, metriocephaly, platyorrhiny and euryprospy. Note that a cluster analysis dendrogram of physical traits of the Dong and 36 other minorities in southern China showed that the physical characteristics of the Dong of Hubei were similar to those of the Dong in Hunan and of the Bouyei in Guizhou. In conclusion, the physical characteristics of the Dong people in Hubei belong to the typical South Asian type of Mongoloid.

A study of seven behavioral traits of lateral functional dominance in the Tunpu

BAO Jinping, ZHENG Lianbin, YU Keli, LI Yonglan, QI Xiaolin, RONG Wenguo, FENG Chenlu, NI Xiaolu

2016, 35(04):  608-616. 

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A sample of 359 Tunpu high school students (145 males, 214 females) was investigated for seven behavioral traits of lateral functional dominance (i.e., hand clasping, handedness, arm folding, leg folding, foot preference, stride type and eye preference). The results of this research were as follows. The percentage of the right type on six traits was much higher than of the left type, except for arm folding. There was no sexual difference in the Tunpu for the seven traits preference. Compared with other ethnic groups, the percentage of R-R type of foot preference and arm folding were at the middle level, whereas the percentage of R-R type of leg folding and hand clasping was at the highest level. Among the seven traits, there were correlations between hand clasping and handedness, hand clasping and arm folding, hand clasping and leg folding. Leg folding, stride type, handedness and foot preference were related to each other.

Ancient DNA supports Emperor Cao’s paternal genetic lineage belonging to haplogroup O2

WEN Shaoqing, WANG Chuanchao, AO Xue, WEI Lanhai, TONG Xinzhu, WANG Lingxiang, WANG ZhanFeng, HAN Sheng, LI Hui

2016, 35(04):  617-625. 

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With recent advances in next generation sequencing technologies and significant genetic investigations carried out by our team in East Asia for years, we have identified thousands of new informative markers and constructed a genetic database of about 200,000 individuals containing Y-STR and Y-SNP information. From this detail we can predict the haplogroups samples belong to by using Y-STR haplotypes. So, we can select fewer SNPs to form a minipanel so as to determine the actual genetic lineage of the subject. Here, we tested the ancient DNA of Emperor CAO Cao’s grand uncle (CAO Ding) buried in Yuanbaokeng I, compensating the shortcoming of the genetic lineage of CAO Cao inferred by those of his present descendants and the Y chromosomal haplogroups inferred by Y-STR haplotypes in previous research. The results showed that the paternal genetic lineage of CAO Cao and their descendants is O2-M268+, F1462+, PK4-.

Discussions on molecular anthropology studies related to Cao clans

GE Wei

2016, 35(04):  626-632. 

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For the past few years, the Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology, Fudan University has carried out a series of DNA studies on the Cao clan. According to these studies, Emperor Cao Cao was a carrier of Y chromosome haplotype O2-M268, thus the identity of the man buried in the Xigaoxue No.2 tomb could be clarified via DNA analysis. The current paper investigates the distribution of O2-M268 in the Chinese population, and results suggest that this haplotype is not an exclusive haplotype to the Cao clan, thus it only has limited significance in further determining the identity of the occupant in the Xigaoxue No.2 tomb. The paper also discusses the context of material remains associated with the so-called Cao Ding’s tooth and the reasoning process of the DNA study about it. Analyses show that the DNA study departed from historical and archaeological background in many aspects so that the validity of the research and the reliability of its conclusions are questionable. For the moment, DNA method seems ineffective in resolving the controversial issues related to Cao Cao’s tomb.