Table of Content

15 September 2018, Volume 37 Issue 03

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The role of tool-making in human evolution

GAO Xing

2018, 37(03):  331-340. 

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Tool-making was long considered a capability and behavior unique to humans, and “Man, the tool-making animal” was long used as the fundamental definition of humanity. Today, bipedal locomotion is taken as the most important characteristic of the hominids, while tool making seems to have been relegated to a less important role in human evolutionary history. We now realize that a handful of animals, especially the non-human primates, possess tool-using abilities and, in even fewer cases, the capability to make tools. What is the role of tool-making in the history of human biological and cognitive evolution? How can we differentiate anthropogenic tools from artifact-like objects (especially lithic) created by hominids and other animals? Do archaeologists have the capacity to unequivocally distinguish human artifacts from products made by other primates? Using the examples of fractured stones fabricated by wild bearded capuchin monkeys in Brazil, lithic artifacts left by chimpanzees 4300 years ago in Co?te d’Ivoire, and 3.3Ma BP stone artifacts made by human ancestors at Lomekwi 3, west of Lake Turkana in northern Kenya, this paper points out that human tools are significantly different from similar products created by other animals, and tool-making activities are vital and essential in defining the uniquely human evolutionary trajectory and influencing human cognitive development. Archaeologists should be cautious in identifying and analyzing stone artifacts made and used by early hominids which share some similarities with geofacts and the products of other animals, but should also realize that human tools are unique in many ways because of human planning, imagination, prediction, functional considerations and highly skilled technological control. The development of archaeological research and the advance of modern technology both facilitate the capability to draw a picture of human evolution more precisely and comprehensively.

The late Paleolithic environmental change and human migration in North China

WANG Youping

2018, 37(03):  341-351. 

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In recent years, a large number of new archaeological discoveries and research results show that, influenced by geographical location and climate change from MIS3 to MIS2, both local and new populations moving into North China continued to migrate and disperse. The simple core-flake technology that existed for a long time in North China, through constant exchange and mixing with incoming populations, developed into the boat-shape micro-blade core technology. Mousterian and blade technologies from western Eurasia also had an impact on North China. During MIS3, external influence was only seen in the eastward movement of populations from high latitudes. To cope with the environmental pressure of MIS2, the blade and wedge-shape micro-blade core technology from North and Northeast Asia spread southwards. However local people in North China chose to adapt the boat-shape micro-blade core technology which was fit for high mobility, survival and further development

A comparative study of the craniofacial features defining ‘Homo antecessor’

Francesc RIBOT Trafí, Mario GARCIA Bartual , Qian WANG

2018, 37(03):  352-370. 

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The establishment of the new species ‘Homo antecessor’ was mainly based on the remains of an immature individual ATD6-69, found at the TD6 litostratigraphic unit (LU) of the Gran Dolina site in the Sierra de Atapuerca—Burgos, northern Spain[1], along with cranial, mandibular and dental traits from other fossil hominid specimens recovered in the same level. TD6 LU was initially dated about 0.78 Ma[2] using ESR-U-series; but recent redatings, employing TL and IRSL methods, suggest that its age is between 0,9-0,95 Ma. It seems that there is general consensus that TD6 LU corresponds to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 25. TD6-69 specimen, a partial face with R P3, M1, and germs of M2 and M3; and L I2-M1, was found in the so-called “Aurora stratum”, ~1.5 m below the Brunhes–Matuyama (B–M) geomagnetic boundary. This “stratum” was in fact, an excavation area of only 6 m2 for archaeological test pit purposes. There is no real basis, from an earnest stratigraphic point of view, to consider such sedimentary level as a new litostratigraphic unit and, therefore, “Aurora stratum” should be take into account as an informal archaeo-sedimentary small area whose name was established to gain public attention from the media.

Progress in endocast and human brain evolution of Chinese human fossils

WU Xiujie, ZHANG Xuan

2018, 37(03):  371-383. 

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Ancient human skull endocasts, known as endocranial casts, preserve surface information of brain morphologies, so they represent direct evidence in the study of human brain evolution. The ZKD Skull III, unearthed from the Peking Man site at Zhoukoudian, Beijing, in the 1920s was the first endocast to be reconstructed and studied in China. Since that time, other human skull fossils collected across China have been studied with regard to fossil appearance and morphological structure, resulting in the reporting of a few endocast studies. The underlying reasons for this lack of endocast studies are for a number of reasons. Ancient human specimens are so precious that destructive analyses are not warranted; broken skulls or intra-skull stratum cement preclude reconstruction of informative endocasts; and technology and research methodologies require further development in order to yield useful data. Recently, the application of high resolution industrial CT and 3D imaging technologies can help researchers virtually to reconstruct internal anatomical structures of skull fossils without damaging fossil specimens. Using these cutting-edge methodologies, the first author has reconstructed endocasts of several ancient human skulls unearthed in China, including Nanjing Homo erectus, Liujiang Man, and so on. Data derived from these studies have permitted us to demonstrate changes in cerebral morphological characteristics of ancient humans in China throughout the course of human evolution. Specifically, by exploring cranial capacity, gyrus features, brain asymmetry, and brain surface impressions of arterial and venous blood vessels, as well as brain sizes, shapes, and lobe proportions, morphological changes of the ancient human brain can be visualized across time. Thus, endocasts of important ancient human fossil specimens have furthered our understanding of brain evolution. This work should serve as a foundation for future evolutionary studies of ancient humans in East Asia.

Preliminary analysis of femoral entheseal changes in Jundushan pastoralists

HE Jianing

2018, 37(03):  384-392. 

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The generally accepted association between mechanical loadings and skeletal changes at entheses has been widely used for activity reconstruction of past populations. Femoral fibrocartilaginous entheseal changes (ECs) of Jundushan Bronze Age pastoralists were studied using the Coimbra method and compared with a sample from Junzicun agriculturalists of the Qing Dynasty. The prevalence of ECs indicated that age resulted in changes in some femoral entheses in these two samples. However physical activity as well as sex and body size as represented by femoral head diameter did not result in differences in femoral ECs. The weight-bearing function of the lower limb and demographic differences between Jundushan and Junzicun may have affected the results. The use of femoral ECs in activity reconstructions is more complex than expected, as there may be other factors beyond age, size and labour intensity affecting ECs in the lower limb. It is recommended that more research on this topic is conducted in the future.

Analysis of dental caries and diet of the Neolithic population at the Dingsishan site, South China

ZHANG Peiqi, LI Fajun, WANG Minghui

2018, 37(03):  393-405. 

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The Dingsishan site, located in the Yongning district of Nanning City, Guangxi, uncovered abundant burials and cultural remains. This paper is based on the analysis on 2737 permanent teeth (particularly dental caries) from 169 individuals of Phase II-III at the site dated to 7-8 ka BP. Dental caries research provides important bioarchaeological information relating to behaviors of prehistoric occupants in southern China including oral health, diet, subsistence and social economy. This work indicates that Dingsishan inhabitants had high rates of caries, possibly due to large consumption of carbohydrates. The pattern of dental caries shows significant differences in sex, burial and age, and compared with eight other Neolithic sites in China, the high rate of dental caries may be because of the specific consumption of tubers and other sugarrich foods in South China. The occurrence of dental caries in three sites was similar even though agriculture was not yet established. During this early Neolithic, the subsistence at these three sites was dominated by fishing, hunting and gathering which indicates the need for more research studying the relationship between dental caries and subsistence.

Research on the skeletal trauma of the victims in Liaoyuan miners' cemetery

ZHANG Quanchao, HAN Tao, ZHANG Wenxin, WEI Dong, LIU Hongying

2018, 37(03):  406-418. 

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In this paper, the authors study on the skeletal materials from the museum of Liaoyuan miners cemetery in the period of degeneration in Northeast region in Liaoyuan, Jilin province. Through the observation and research of 197 individuals (male186, female 4 and minor 7), the authors found that trauma caused by violence on the remains of dead miners shows a certain rate. A total of 40 individuals shows the traumas while 70 cases have been found. This paper combed the predecessors' study of bone trauma history. By using forensic traumatology research methods,trauma types and sizes were observed and measured. The authors also analyzed the location of the batter, the strike direction and handedness when the injury happened and classify the traumas. Statistical analysis shows the distribution of trauma in different groups, the proportion of all kinds of trauma appeared, and in the distribution of trauma and the degree of damage. The study shows that the puppet army ruler persecution for miners has been extended to women and children. Most of traumas found in remains were caused by effective struck tools such as swords or hammers violently blow to the skull face to face. And the striker armed at greater risk of left hands. It indicates that there might have a full-time goons for miners direct damage at that time. Finally make a tentative hypothesis for the realistic causes of some trauma individuals that were killed. Strive to restore the objective situation when the miners were injured. So as to provide a reference for explore the living environment and condition of the miners that time.

A preliminary report on the stone artifacts of 2016 excavation of Maliang Locality 10 in the Nihewan Basin

LIU Lianqiang, WANG Fagang, YANG Shixia, YUE Jianping

2018, 37(03):  419-427. 

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Maliang site, located in the Nihewan basin of North China, was discovered and excavated in 1984, 2006 and 2008, and yielded a few lithic artifacts and animal fossils. Paleomagnetic dating suggests that early humans colonized the site around 0.8-0.9 Ma. In order to reveal cultural features of the site integrally, a new excavation was undertaken by the Hebei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics at Maliang Locality 10 in 2016. The excavation exposed an area of 18 m2. Large quantities of animal fossils fragments and 197 stone artifacts were unearthed. In techno-typological aspects, lithic raw materials are procured from the adjacent area, predominated by chert, quartz sandstone and dolomite. The artifact types include cores, test cores, flakes, tools, pebbles, blocks, angular fragments and shatters. The flaking technique is dominated by direct hard-hammer percussion without core preparation. The tools are casually retouched by direct hammer percussion. Compared to the early sites in the other part of the basin, such as Xiaochangliang, Donggutuo and Cenjiawan, the knapping techniques and the toolproduction skills in Maliang Locality 10 seems to be simplified.

New archaeological developments at the Dingcun Site Group since 2011

WANG Yiren, YUAN Wenming, LAN Huicai, ZHOU Ti, YANG Yuemin, XIA Hongru, REN Haiyun

2018, 37(03):  428-441. 

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The Dingcun site group, which has been continuously excavated for decades, is one of the most important Paleolithic areas in China. During the last 60 years, archaeological work at Dingcun has achieved many significant results. Since 2011, the Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology has conducted archaeological surveys around Dingcun, and discovered some 100 Paleolithic sites including Jiulongdong, Guoshuidong and Laohupo. These three sites are located in the loess between the eastern Fen river and the Ta’er mountains. Through excavation, scholars inferred that Laohupo and Guoshuidong sites might have functioned as living camps, and Jiulongdong as a lithic workshop. This new evidence provides us important clues and precious material to better interpret the region and routes as well as activities of early humans. A great number of lithic artifacts and archaeological sites have been uncovered in the valley from (southeast to northwest) Beijian gully, Sha’nv gully to Shangzhuang gully, which connects with the south hill of Dagudui Mountain with exposed hornfels bedrock. In contrast, signs of human activities were scarce in the Beizhai and Chaicun gullies. These geological discoveries clearly indicate the preference and reliance of hornfels as raw materials for the early occupants at Dingcun.

Daily cuspal enamel secretion rates of fossil orangutans from Guangxi, China

HU Rong，ZHAO Lingxia

2018, 37(03):  442-451. 

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As the only living great ape in Asia, the orangutan was ever widely distributed throughout Southeast Asia and southern China, but preserved fossil materials include mainly isolated teeth. Because of this limited data from external dental characteristics such as shape and size, classification and evolution of orangutans is controversial and not agreed upon by all the scientists. Many studies show that tooth growth and development is a potential tool for taxonomy and phylogeny. In this work, Pleistocene orangutan teeth from Guangxi, were used to create histological slides in order to measure enamel daily secretion rates (DSR). Our results showed that cuspal enamel daily secretion rates were in the range of 2.32-6.88μm/d, with the average DSR 4.61μm/d. These results were then compared with other living great apes and modern humans, all of which should help in determining orangutan phylogeny and taxonomy.

Small mammalian remians from the Wazhuozui site in Fengdu, Chongqing

WU Xianzhu1, WANG Zhaokui

2018, 37(03):  452-466. 

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The Wazhuozui site is located in the second terrace of Guantian village, Gaojia town of Fengdu county in Chongqing. The geomorphic feature is the second terrace on the right bank of the Yangtze River. The geographical coordinates are 30°01′56.7″N, 107°51′51.7″E, altitude 167m. It is a mid-Paleolithic site about 70-80 ka BP. This site is closely linked to the Jingshuiwan site found nearby. This shows that the secondary terrace of the Three Gorges area has remains of dense ancient human activities. The site produces 7 families, 10 genera and 11 species of small mammal fossils: Soriculus nigrescens, Chodsigoa smithii, Anourosorex squamipes, Crocidura suaveolens, Rhinolophus pearsoni, Hipposideros armiger, Rattus norvegicus, Rattus flavipectus, Trogopterus xanthipes, Rhizomys pruinosus, Nesolagus sinensis. The habitat and distribution of small mammals reflect the wide range of resources involved in the economic production of ancient humans, and have a strong adaptability to mountainous environment of significant elevational differences. Local environment of the site is the valley area of low-altitude tropical monsoon climate. However, in the surrounding mountain area of the site, there are subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests, temperate coniferous forest and coniferous vegetation belt. There are more insectivorous species but with the smallest number of individuals. The discovery of the Chinese Sumatran rabbit (Nesolagus sinensis), provided evidence for the existence of tropical monsoon climate zone in the Three Gorges area in the early Late Pleistocene.

Starch grain analysis of human dental calculus from the Guanzhuang site, Henan Province

TAO Dawei, CHEN Zhaoyun

2018, 37(03):  467-477. 

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This paper aims to investigate human foodstuffs and lifestyle during the Western and Eastern Zhou Dynasties in the core area of the Central Plains using starch grain analysis of human dental calculus. Plant microfossils, starch grains and phytoliths, which were found in most calculus samples from the Guanzhuang site, were from millets, bread wheat, rice, adzuki, tubers and acorns.Diversity of starch grains and phytoliths extracted from dental calculus and analyzed for their morphological characteristics indicates that a variety of starchy plants, including crops and gathered plants, were consumed by the Guanzhuang inhabitants. Millets were dominant in the human diet of the Guanzhuang site. Bread wheat was of secondary importance. Combined with the macrobotanical evidence from the Guanzhuang and other neighboring sites, a traditional millet agricultural system still existed in the core area of the Central Plains when the multiple cropping system had emerged in this region. Meanwhile, the importance of bread wheat increased in the agricultural system during the Western and Eastern Zhou Dynasties and a change in the cropping system from millet-dominant to bread wheat-dominant ocurred.

A study of the anthropometrics of the Liangshan Yi people in Sichuan Province

YU Keli, DONG Wenjing, LI Yonglan, ZHENG Lianbin

2018, 37(03):  478-483. 

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We investigated 87 physical characteristics and calculated 20 physical indices of 402 adults (197 males and 205 females) of the Liangshan Yi nationality in Sichuan Province. The results showed the following details. The main features of head-face characteristics of the Liangshan Yi nationality were brachycephaly, mesorrhiny and leptoprosopy. Body traits indicated a medium trunk type and medium pelvic type. Heights of Yi men were sub-medium in contrast to women who were in the middle range. A comparison of the Yi nationality in Sichuan to those found in Yunnan and Guangxi provinces showed values of head breadth, minimum frontal breadth, and morphological face length were the highest. In this comparison, values of head length, mouth breadth and nasal breadth values were in the medium range, and face breadth values are similar among the three groups. Nasal types were all mesorrhiny. The height of Yi males in Sichuan was similar to Yi males in Yunnan but higher than Yi males in Guangxi (P<0.01). The height of Yi females in Sichuan was significantly higher than Yi females in Yunnan and Guangxi (P<0.01). In conclusion, the physical characteristics of the Liangshan Yi nationality in Sichuan were similar to the Sichuan Han nationality, Achang, Gelao and other southern groups of China.

Geographical distribution of stature and body mass of rural Chinese Han adults

LIU Xiangjun, ZHANG Xinghua, XI Huanjiu, LI Yonglan, LU Shunhua, BAO Jinping, ZHENG Lianbin

2018, 37(03):  484-495. 

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There is no report of large samples about variations of stature and body mass of rural Han in China increasing with latitude and longitude. As a result of this lack, we measured 13 indicators including stature and weight of 16501 rural Han adults in 36 areas in China from 2009 to 2013. From these measurements we calculated three indices. The results of this research show that stature and latitude of rural Han adults is positively correlated, and that the height of the trunk and lower limb all increased with latitude. With latitude increasing, the velocity of the lower extremity and length increase in males exceeding a positive correlation between body mass and latitude. The increase in stature, trunk circumference, limb circumference of females, and back subcutaneous fat also exceeded the positive correlation between body mass and latitude. This increase in stature was due to an increase in the lower extremity length. With latitude increasing, there was also an increase in Chinese rural Han stature and trunk circumference, thickness of female triceps skinfold, subscapular skinfold, and supraspinale skinfold. Variations in all the factors above shows a positive correlation between body mass and latitude in our sample. Stature and body mass of males and females are positively correlated with longitude, which means that stature and body mass of rural Han linearly increase with longitude. Stature of males and females show a positive correlation with trunk and lower limbs that are linearly increasing with longitude. Larger stature and thicker trunks associated with longitude in male Han is why body mass is correlated with longitude. Subcutaneous fat of the trunk and limbs are not linearly increased with longitude. Stature and hip circumference of females linearly correlated with longitude explains why female body mass is correlated with longitude. Heredity, geographical conditions and economic development have led to stature and body mass being positively correlated with longitude. Differences of genetic, environment and level of economic development are the main factors that influence different physical characteristics of the Han in southern and northern China.