Table of Content

15 November 2019, Volume 38 Issue 04

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The morphological evidence for the regional continuity and diversity of Middle Pleistocene human evolution in China

LIU Wu, WU Xiujie, XING Song

2019, 38(04):  473-490.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0048

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For decades, the Middle Pleistocene human fossils found in China have been attributed into Homo erectus and archaic Homo sapiens; respectively. This classification was mainly based on morphology and chronology of these fossils. Some cranial, mandibular and dental features identified and described on the human fossils of Zhoukoudian locality 1 by Weidenreich have been used as the standard for Homo erectus. According to the chronology of the Chinese Middle Pleistocene human fossils, later period of Middle Pleistocene around 300 ka are usually regarded as approximate border between Homo erectus and archaic Homo sapiens. For the past two decades, more Middle Pleistocene human fossils have been found in Africa, Europe and East Asia. Currently, the understanding for the fossil morphology and evolution of Middle Pleistocene humans has changed a lot. Recent studies of human fossils from Dali, Xujiayao, Panxian Dadong, Xuchang, Hualongdong indicate that in the past 300 ka, the human evolution in East Asia exhibited complicated diversities. Classifying all the hominins of this time period into archaic Homo sapiens cannot accurately reflect the human evolution patterns in East Asian continent. In the present study, with considering the research progress of Middle Pleistocene human evolution in China, the expressions of some morphological features with evolutionary and taxonomic values were analyzed for the Middle Pleistocene human fossils. Based on these analysis, the evolution pattern of Middle Pleistocene humans in China were tentatively explored. Our study indicates that the human fossils of early period of Middle Pleistocene in China including Zhoukoudian, Hexian, Yiyuan, Nanjing exhibit more features characterizing the region pattern and the expression of these feature are relatively stable. In contrast, the morphology expressions of human fossils from later period of Middle Pleistocene like Dali, Jinniushan, Maba, Panxian Dadong, Xujiayao, Xuchang, Hualongdong are more complicated with wide variation ranges. Besides, a number of evidence showing the living activity, healthy status and adaptation to environment have been found in the human fossils of this period. With these findings, the authors propose that the human evolution of early period of Middle Pleistocene in China mainly follows the pattern of morphological continuity. Entering the later part of Middle Pleistocene, the regional pattern of human evolution in China decreased with diversity taking the main place. A series of new human fossil findings and research progresses indicate that several hominins may co-exist in Middle Pleistocene’s East Asia. With available evidence of human fossil morphology and chronology, approximately 300 ka is the key time point for the evolution changes in Middle Pleistocene in China.



The Out of East Asia theory of modern human origins supported by recent ancient mtDNA findings

ZHANG Ye, HUANG Shi

2019, 38(04):  491-498.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0068

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It was in 1983 that scientists constructed the first molecular model of modern human origin based on the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogenetic tree, and concluded that modern people originated in Asia. However, in 1987, the Out of Africa model also known as African Eve model was proposed and replaced the original model. But the infinite site assumption and the molecular clock hypothesis on which the African Eve model was based have been widely considered to be unrealistic. In recent years, we have proposed a new molecular evolution theory, namely the maximum genetic diversity(MGD) theory, and used it to reconstruct a new model of human origin, which is basically consistent with the Multiregional model and has the root of modern humans in East Asia. The main difference between the African Eve and our Asia model in the mtDNA tree is the relationship between haplotypes N and R. The African Eve model says that N is the ancestor of R, and our model indicates it is the opposite. In this research, we studied those mtDNA data published from ancient samples, focusing on the relationship between mitochondrial haplogroup N and R. The results show that the three oldest humans (one from 45,000 years ago and the other two about 40,000 years) belong to the haplogroup R. In the human samples from 39,500 to 30,000 years ago, most of them belong to the sub-haplogroup U downstream of the haplogroup R, and only two of them fall into the haplogroup N group(Oase1 is 39,500 years ago, Salkhit is 34,426 years ago). The haplotypes of these two individuals are not part of any prensent N downstream haplotypes and so may be close to the roots of the haplogroup N. These ancient DNA data reveal that the haplogroup R is about 5,000 years older than the haplogroup N, thus confirming the East Asia model and invalidating the African Eve model.



Enamel defects of the Xujiayao juvenile

XING Song

2019, 38(04):  499-512.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0049

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The hominin fossils recovered from Xujiayao-Hsuchiayao (Locality 74093）site is critical in understanding the morphological variability of hominins from the period of Middle to late Pleistocene transition. Other than the morphologies, the pathological aspects of Xujiayao hominins were also investigated and the juvenile (Xujiayao 1) was believed to be suffered from dental fluorosis based on the presence of the yellow pit or furrow on its anterior teeth. The incidence of “dental fluorosis” in Xujiayao has been thought to represent the earliest evidence of this pathological anomaly. However, with the use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and microcomputed tomography (micro-CT), the yellow enamel defects were found to be hypoplastic alternation that occurred before the tooth eruption. They were not post-eruptive physical breakage resulted from chewing force and therefore don’t support the diagnosis of dental fluorosis. In addition, synchrotron phase-contrast microtomography of the anterior teeth under both micron and submicron resolutions didn’t show obvious sign of subsurface hypomineralization along the sagittal section of the enamel, and it doesn’t support the occurrence of dental fluorosis resulted from the disturbance of enamel maturation phase. However, plenty of pit-type hypoplastic defects were present on the enamel surface of the Xujiayao permanent teeth and the bottom of the enamel pits were underlain by accentuated incremental line. This type of enamel defects could be resulted from distributed secretory stage of enamel formation by excessive fluoride intake according to the experimental study on mammals. Apart from the surface defects, synchrotron scanning under submicron resolution at four different spots of Xujiayao permanent teeth reveals plenty of enamel holes inside the crown. These holes have a sphere-like shape and generally restricted to outer one-third area of the enamel thickness. Different locations within one scanning spot vary in the density of enamel holes. In canine, the enamel holes of high-density correspond with a hypoplastic depression on the enamel surface. Enamel holes inside the paracone apex of m¹ are in some cases connected with each other, with the main axis perpendicular to the outer enamel surface. These characteristics indicate a non-random distribution pattern of the enamel holes, and that they might be caused by the same effects as that of enamel hypoplasia. Teeth forming at different times vary in the density of hypoplastic pits and enamel holes, and this might imply various level of physiological disturbance at different stages of dental growth and development. Future study could further quantify the fluoride content in the deposit containing the Xujiayao hominin fossils, as well as in the tooth enamel, in order to ascertain if the Xujiayao people used to live a fluoride-rich environment and if they did ingest enough fluoride. With this information, the mechanism of enamel defects in Xujiayao juvenile could be more thoroughly understood.



Methods for estimating cranial capacity from Chinese human fossils

WU Xiujie, ZHANG Wei

2019, 38(04):  513-524.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0061

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Ancient human skulls exhibit anatomical and morphological differences from modern skulls that depend on the evolutionary stage of the fossil under study. Thus, formulae derived using modern human skull measurements are mostly unsuitable for calculating cranial capacities from ancient human fossils. The most accurate way to estimate cranial capacities of human fossil skulls is through internal cranial vault reconstructions; However, due to the complex reconstruction process of endocranial casts, as well as the rare and almost never fully intact fossil skulls, prompting an intense search by paleoanthropologists for better methods for estimating ancient human values. Here, cranial capacity methods for their estimation from Chinese human fossils were compared and analyzed, with the following results: 1) Anatomical features of early modern humans and modern humans are basically similar. Thus, the regression equation derived using modern human skull measurements to estimate cranial capacity applies to early modern human fossils; 2) Homo erectus’ thick skull and low cranium differ markedly from corresponding modern human features. Therefore, instead of the modern human formula, the regression equation derived here from Chinese Homo erectus skull measurements, C=-1301.944+60606L+0.718b+9.936h, should be used to calculate Homo erectus cranial capacity. Using this formula, the cranial capacity of the Lantian Homo erectus was estimated to be 918 mL, as compared to the previous estimate of 778 mL; 3) Physical features of archaic Homo sapiens, which lie somewhere between those of Homo erectus and early modern humans, vary markedly from these extremes; therefore their cranial capacities cannot be estimated using a single formula. For example, cranial capacities of archaic human fossils Dali and Hualongdong 6, which exhibit physical characteristics more closely resembling those of Homo erectus than those of early modern humans, are best calculated using the Homo erectus formula. Conversely, cranial capacities of archaic human fossils possessing physical characteristics closer to early modern humans than to Homo erectus, such as Xuchang 1, should be estimated using the modern human formula. In yet a third scenario, cranial capacities of fossils exhibiting physical characteristics between those of Homo erectus and early modern humans, such as Maba and Jinniushan, should be calculated using averages of values obtained using both modern human and Homo erectus formulae.

The late Pleistocene flake tool industries in North China

WANG Youping

2019, 38(04):  525-535.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0065

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This research first summarizes the development history of the late Pleistocene flake tools industries in North China. Subsequently, it also discusses the interactions between flake tools and a number of other industries in surrounding areas, including the pebble industries in South China, the newly discovered Mousterian lithic assemblages in the northern border area, as well as the blade and micro-blade industries later coming from Northwest China. Finally, it focuses on the relationship between the late Pleistocene flake tools in North China and the emergence and evolution of modern human in this region. Flake tools is the dominant lithic technology in North China during the late Pleistocene, and provide a lot of crucial archaeological evidence for exploring the emergence and evolution of modern human in this area.

LR Binford’s taphonomic research on the Zhoukoudian site and theory building of Paleolithic archaeology

ZHANG Meng, CHEN Chun

2019, 38(04):  536-546.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0066

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Based on the review of Lewis Binford’s visiting of China in 1985, it is argued that failure of this visit and proposed coordination between American and Chinese Paleolithic archaeologists were caused by epistemological and paradigmatic discrepancy between the two countries. The questioning of the Cave Home of Peking Man based on his taphonomic considerations represented new advance developed by processual archaeology and was characterized by his landmark works of Nunamiut Ethnoarchaeology and Bones: Ancient Men and Modern Myths. After introducing the endeavor of the Middle Range Theory and Frames of Reference Construction built by Binford, it is appealing to Chinese community of Paleolithic archaeology that we should shift our paradigm from classification and description to interpretation and reconstruction of human behavior. We should emphasize the analysis and inductive approach of archaeological data, put forward questions of research and methods to solve them, and then effectively eliminate natural transformation factors by using taphonomy and zooarchaeology to extract productive information of human behavior. With the help of combination of induction and deduction and of comprehensive frames of reference based on ethnoarchaeology and comparative studies, we can finally reconstruct cultural history, human lifeways and cultural process.

Theoretical retrospection on the origin of microblade technology

CHEN Shengqian, YE Canyang

2019, 38(04):  547-562.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0060

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The origin of microblade technology(MT) is a hot issue in Paleolithic archaeology of China. Although there is a significant increase in discoveries and research about MT, the theoretical basis has not been fully explored yet. This work reexamined the fundamental concepts related to MT, clarified the assumptions about the studies on the origin of MT, and analyzed the innate problems in them. It suggests that the explanation from diffusionism cannot sufficiently answer the question the origin of MT. Meanwhile, the emergence of MT does not equate with the origins of technological factors that compose of MT, since these factors could have appeared in different periods and areas. Furthermore, we cannot separate the emergence of MT from the discussion of the general mechanism in the changes of lithic technologies. Finally, we should be aware of the unavoidable restrain from paradigm in which researchers situate themselves. In the future we should be clear on the limit of paradigm and the assumptions on which research is made, and expand the boundary of our exploration.



A preliminary report on excavation of the Dongliangmao Lower Paleolithic site in Jixian county, Shanxi Province, North China

SONG Yanhua, XU Le, LI Lei, LI Zongyu, SHI Jinming

2019, 38(04):  563-574.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0062

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The Dongliangmao Lower Paleolithic Site(36°02.873′ N、110°34.069′ E, 706ASL) is located along the Qingshuihe River in Jixian County, Shanxi Province, North China. This site was excavated from 2009 to 2010. The excavations exposed a section of some 15m depth and an area of about 1000m². Totally 22 stone artifacts and 2682 animal fossils were unearthed. The stone assemblage includes flakes, chunks and retouched tools, which were made of quartzite, flint and quartz collected from the near Yellow River by ancient human. The tools were chipped and retouched into small-sized scrapers and points by direct hammer percussion. The animal fossils can be identified as Dicerorhinus merki Jäger, Equus sp., Bovinae, Megaloceros pachyosteus Young, Sus sp., Ochotono sp., Myospalax fontanieri and Carnivora et al., which were the common species in North China in the Early Middle Pleistocene, indicating the environmental background of open forest steppe. All the artifacts are unearthed from the lower Lishi loess with 12m thick loess-paleosol sequence, and its gravel bed. Geomorphological and biostratigraphic comparison shows that the age of this site should be Early Middle Pleistocene. The Dongliangmao site provides an important information for the studies on the early Paleolithic archaeological culture and its distribution in North China.



Ecological perspective on the points from the Gezishan site in Ningxia

WANG Huimin, GUO Jialong, ZHANG Yanling, HUANG Jincheng, PENG Fei, GAO Xing

2019, 38(04):  575-583.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0067

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The Gezishan (Pigeon Mountain) site is located 50 km southeast of the Tengger desert and south of the Helanshan piedmont alluvial fan. Between the 1990s and the 2010s, thousands of lithic artifacts were collected from the surface at the site. Among the different kinds of lithic artifacts collected, points form a distinct typological class. This paper introduces some of the point types collected from the Gezishan site, and discusses their morphological and function variation in relation to paleoenviromental changes from the Late Pleistocene to Early Holocene. We suggest that the morphological variation of the Gezishan points reflects a shift in tool function from throwing projectile weaponry to digging tools. This technological transition corresponds with the changing local vegetation and plant resources during this time, and represents a novel behaviour that contributed to the onset of agriculture.



A general review on the bipolar flaking technique and related issues in Paleolithic archaeology

MA Dongdong, PEI Shuwen

2019, 38(04):  584-597.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0063

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Bipolar knapping technique, as one of the basic lithic knapping strategies adopted by early hominins, was widely used since the earliest stone age to the ethnographic observation. Compared to the other important flaking technique (freehand percussion), the unique mechanism of bipolar knapping technique bears many advantages and weaknesses. What kinds of roles did the bipolar technique play during the human evolution also attracted great attention in the paleoanthropological research. At present, the experimental work and discussion of bipolar knapping strategy in Chinese Paleolithic archaeology is still rare, the discriminating attributes and economic strategy of bipolar technique have always been controversy for a long time. Combining with the experimental study on the Madigou site from the Nihewan Basin, this paper tries to make an illustration on terminology of bipolar knapping in details and definite the concept, application patterns, economic strategy, as well as the identification attributes of the technique. Furthermore, the authors suggest that the bipolar experiments on local raw materials should be carried out before the observation of bipolar products. In a word, this paper will bear significance on the identification of bipolar products excavated from archaeological sites and the interpretation of lithic technology as well as adapted behaviors adopted by early hominins in China.



A zooarchaeological analysis of the burned bone from the Shizitan Site 9, Shanxi, China

ZHANG Shuangquan, SONG Yanhua, ZHANG Yue, XU Le, LI Lei, SHI Jinming

2019, 38(04):  598-612.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0047

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Located at the Gaolouhe village, Jixian County of the Shanxi Province, the Shizitan site(Locality 9) is roughly 7 km to the Yellow River. Discovered in 2000, this site was systematically excavated in 2001, 2002 and 2005. Along with thousands of lithic tools of microblade technology, a dozen of organic artifacts and lithic grinding tools, plenty of faunal remains were recovered from the 3 field seasons of excavation. Based mainly on an observation of the taphonomic features of the faunal remains from Layer 4(12,575-11,600 cal. BP) and Layer 5(ca. 13,000 cal. BP), particularly of the small-sized bone fragments from the site, it could be argued that the burned bones here are most probably a palimpsest of several episodes of human behavior centering around the hearth, including but not limited to roasting meat, burning bones for site maintenance and as a supplementary source of fuel. Besides, it seems clear that humans at the site moved the fire residues out of the fireplace and later on dumped them at its peripheries.



Mammalian fossils from the Middle Pleistocene human site of Bailongdong in Yunxi, Hubei

TONG Haowen, ZHANG Bei, WU Xianzhu, QU Shengming

2019, 38(04):  613-640.  doi:10.16359/j.cnki.cn11-1963/q.2019.0064

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Bailongdong (or Bailong Cave), a cave site of ancient humans, is positioned at Yunxi County which is located in the northwest part of Hubei Province. The principal archaeological finds from Bailongdong include 8 human teeth, a couple of stone and bone artifacts as well as numerous mammalian fossils. Whereas the geologic age of the site is still debateful so far, mainly because of the evidence from the mammalian fossils were not well explored. This study covers all the available specimens unearthed during the past four decades, which are currently reposited in the Cultural Relics Station of Yunxi County and the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology of CAS. The results show that the Bailongdong fauna is composed of 32 mammalian species (including undetermined species) which is dominated by Bos(Bibos) gaurus grangeri, Pseudois nayaur, Sus lydekkeri and diversified deers (Elaphodus cephalophus, Muntiacus cf. reevesi, Muntiacus muntjak, Cervus grayi, Rusa unicolor); In addition, the following taxa are also presented: Miniopterus schreibersii, Rhinolophus sp., Ochotona sp., Leopoldamys edwardsi, Rhizomys sinensis, Hystrix subcristata, Canis mosbachensis variabilis, Cuon javanicus antiquus, Nyctereutes sinensis, Ursus thibetanus, Ailuropoda baconi, Arctonyx collaris rostratus, Pachycrocuta sinensis, Catopuma temmincki, Neofelis nebulosa, Panthera tigris, Panthera pardus, Homotherium sp., Stegodon orientalis, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis, Megatapirus augustus, Capricornis sumatraensis kanjereus and Bubalus sp., and the extinct taxa account for 43.75%; but monkeys are lacking and porcupines are few, which is unusual for its geographical and chronological positions; moreover, the general composition agrees well with that of the Ailuropoda-Stegodon fauna. Such taxa of Bailongdong fauna as A. baconi, P. sinensis, A. c. rostratus, P. tigris and M. augustus nearly reached the maximum peak in dimensions of their kinds respectively. Based on the faunal composition and evolutionary levels, the age of Bailongdong fauna should correspond to the Middle Pleistocene, which is very close to the Yanjinggou fauna and the fauna of the Nanjing Man site.