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15 April 2026, Volume 45 Issue 02

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Paleoanthropology: Primates and Their Evolution



Gigantopithecus blacki discovered in the Early-Middle Pleistocene transition phase in Yanli Cave 1, Chongzuo, Guangxi

YAO Yanyan, AI Wanting, HU Minhang, FU Qiongyao, LI Guoshan, ZHONG Jiemei, HU Pengcheng, HUANG Shengmin, TIAN Chun, LIANG Hua, LIAO Wei, WANG Wei, YI Zhixing

2026, 45(02):  199-209.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2026.0010

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Gigantopithecus blacki is hypothesized to have been the largest primate species. Its fossil record is predominantly concentrated in the Early Pleistocene, followed by the Middle Pleistocene, while materials from the Early-Middle Pleistocene transition (EMPT, 1.2~0.7 Ma) remain relatively scarce, therefore limiting in-depth exploration of the Gigantopithecus evolutionary patterns against the backdrop of climatic shifts during the Middle Pleistocene Revolution. Systematic excavations at Yanli Cave 1 in Chongzuo, Guangxi, conducted between late 2023 and early 2024, yielded 13 dental specimens of G. blacki. The associated mammalian fossil assemblage has been identified as comprising 6 orders, 17 families, 27 genera, and 30 species. The Primates include G. blacki, Pongo weidenreichi, Hylobates sp., Macaca sp., Rhinopithecus sp., and Trachypithecus sp. The Rodentia include Hystrix kiangsenensis. The Carnivora include Cuon javanicus antiquus, Panthera tigris, Neofelis nebulosa, Catopuma temminckii, Viverra sp., Ursus thibetamus, Ailuropoda wulingshanensis, A. melanoleuca baconi, Arctonyx collaris, and Meles leucurus. The Perissodactyla include Rhinoceros sondaicus and Tapirus sinensis. The Artiodactyla consist of Sus peii, S. xiaozhu, Cervus unicolour, Elaphodus cephalophus, Muntiacus muntjak, M. reevesi, Capricornis sumatraensis, Megalovis guangxiensis, and Bos gaurus. The Proboscidea include Stegodon cf. S. orientalis and Elephas maximus. The mammalian assemblage associated with these giant ape fossils includes both late Early Pleistocene representative taxa such as A. wulingshanensis, as well as Middle Pleistocene forms like A. melanoleuca baconi. The faunal assemblage indicates a biostratigraphic age of EMPT. Comparative analysis of tooth dimensions with Gigantopithecus fossils from other localities reveals that some specimens (447, 418, 043, 653, and SG-2) from Yanli Cave 1 retain the relatively small-sized characteristic generally found in the early Early Pleistocene populations. However, other specimens (589, 326, and 715) approach the large dental size commonly found in the late Early Pleistocene populations and larger size ranges documented in the Middle Pleistocene populations. These findings are consistent with the biochronological assessment. Following the discoveries at Queque Cave and Zhanwang Cave (both located at Chongzuo, Guangxi), Yanli Cave 1 represents as a third potential EMPT Gigantopithecus locality, likely offering crucial evidence for understanding dental evolutionary patterns and adaptive strategies in response to EMPT climatic shifts.



Early Middle Pleistocene Pongo from Yanli Cave 2, Chongzuo, Guangxi

YAO Yanyan, LIAO Wei, LI Juping, YI Zhixing, TIAN Chun, ZHONG Jiemei, GAO Chao, WANG Wei, LIANG Hua

2026, 45(02):  210-223.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2026.0009

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In the past century, abundant fossil orangutans have been successively discovered in southern China, ranging from the Early Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene. However, few early Middle Pleistocene fossil orangutans with precise absolute dating have been reported in southern China. To date, no scholar has provided a detailed morphological description of early Middle Pleistocene fossil orangutans, thereby limiting our exploration of scientific questions such as the evolution of orangutans in southern China during the Pleistocene. Here, we report the recovery of 34 fossil teeth of orangutans from Yanli Cave 2 in Chongzuo, Guangxi, southern China. We further compare them to samples of fossil orangutans (i.e., Pongo weidenreichi, Pongo devosi, Pongo duboisi, Pongo palaeosumatrensis, Pongo javensis, and Pongo sp.) from the Pleistocene and to extant orangutans (i.e., Pongo pygmaeus and Pongo abelii) from Southeast Asia. The Yanli Cave 2 Pongo teeth are 19.3% larger on average than those of extant Pongo (P. pygmaeus and P. abelii). The Yanli Cave 2 Pongo teeth are larger in overall size than those of P. devosi, P. palaeosumatrensis, and P. javensis, comparable to P. duboisi, and fall within the range of P. weidenreichi. The Yanli Cave 2 Pongo teeth differ from those of extant Pongo (P. pygmaeus) in having upper molars with a greater incidence of s trace of a lingual cingulum and upper and lower molars with a lower incidence of moderate to heavy wrinkling. The Yanli Cave 2 Pongo teeth differ from those assigned to P. devosi in having upper and lower incisors with an undeveloped or a weakly developed lingual pillar and lingual cingulum, upper molars with a lower incidence of a trace of a lingual cingulum, and upper and lower molars with a lower incidence of moderate to heavy wrinkling. Based on their dental size, and the presence of undeveloped or weakly developed lingual cingulum on the upper and lower incisors, a low frequency of lingual cingulum remnants on the upper molars, and a low frequency of moderate to heavy wrinkling on the molars, we assign the Yanli Cave 2 fossils to P. weidenreichi. Compared with orangutan fossils from other mainland Southeast Asia sites, the incidence of a trace of a lingual cingulum on the upper molars from Yanli Cave 2 is lower than P. weidenreichi and P. devosi from the middle and late Pleistocene. The result indicates that the morphological characteristics of orangutans in southern China may have changed during the early Middle Pleistocene. This research provides new scientific evidence for understanding the classification evolution of great apes in East Asia.



Newly discovered orangutan fossils from western Guangxi and their taxonomic and evolutionary significance

WANG Siyuan, LI Jinyan, LIANG Hua, XIE Yaozhang, LIAO Wei, WANG Wei

2026, 45(02):  224-235.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2026.0013

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Analysis of the morphological characteristics of dental fossils is crucial for reconstructing the phylogenetic classification and evolutionary framework of orangutans. However, the fossil orangutan specimens from southern China have not been subjected to such research in this regard. This paper reports newly discovered orangutan teeth from the Dushanshang Cave site. Using morphological analysis methods for dental fossils, it attempts to construct a systematic classification and evolutionary framework for orangutans.

The Dushanshang Cave site is located in Yonglong Village, Linfeng Town, Tiandong County, Baise City, in the western part of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The cave entrance faces northwest. Inside, the cave is 1~5 m wide and approximately 55 m long. The cave runs east-west overall. The entrance sits at an elevation of 236 meters above sea level, with the ground level outside the entrance approximately 16 m below. In 2012, the Guangxi Natural History Museum collaborated with the Tiandong County Museum to excavate this cave site. Prior to systematic excavation, researchers established Test Pit T1 approximately 50 meters from the cave entrance based on the preservation and distribution of deposits at Dushanshang Cave. After clearing disturbed surface deposits, excavation proceeded in 10-centimeter horizontal layers from top to bottom. Sediments from each layer were systematically collected and dry-sieved outside the cave using a 4 mm mesh to recover smaller fossils. The final excavation depth of T1 approximately 130 cm.

In addition to orangutan fossils, over 500 mammal tooth fossils were discovered at Dushanshang Cave. Representative mammal species include the Ailuropoda milanoleuea daconi, Stegodon orientalis, Elephas maximus and Megatapirus augustus. Based on comparisons with mammal faunas from different periods of the Quaternary in southern China, the Dushanshang Cave mammal assemblage has been tentatively dated to the Late Middle Pleistocene.

By encoding the morphological traits of the upper premolars and molars and employing correspondence analysis combined with classical hierarchical cluster analysis, we compared orangutan specimens from the Dushanshang Cave with fossils of the genus Langsonia and Pongo from northern Vietnam, as well as with extant P. pygmaeus. The results indicate that the morphological variation range of the Dushanshang Cave specimens not only exceeds that of the relevant groups from northern Vietnam but also shows significant distinctions from extant orangutans. Considering their dental dimensions and geological age, we assign them to P. weidenreichi. Further scoring and analysis of morphological traits from additional dental fossils will help refine the classification system and clarify the evolutionary relationships of orangutan fossils in southern China.



Newly discovered early Late Pleistocene orangutan teeth from southern China

XU Shilin, YANG Yuwei, LIANG Hua, YAO Yanyan, TIAN Chun, DONG Ruxun, HUANG Nannan, LIAO Wei, WANG Wei

2026, 45(02):  236-247.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2026.0017

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During the Pleistocene, orangutans were widely distributed across southern China. Although the fossil record of orangutans in South China spans the entire Pleistocene period, materials from the early Late Pleistocene remain insufficiently studied. Here we report on orangutan tooth fossils from the Shanzu Cave which is located in Xinhe Town, Jiangzhou District, Chongzuo City, Guangxi. The interior of the cave is relatively wide, exceeding 1 m in width, and extends approximately 30 m in length, with the overall cave structure running east-west. Approximately 20 meters from the main entrance lies a side passage. Both the main passage and the side passage retain deposits. Fossils of mammals such as Pongo, Ailuropoda melanoleuca baconi, and Sus scrofa were collected from the surface layers near the cave entrance and along the central passageway. In 2017, researchers from Natural History Museum of Guangxi and Anthropology Museum of Guangxi conducted excavations at this cave. Prior to systematic excavation, based on the preservation and distribution of sediments in the cave, researchers established excavation unit T1 at the side passage approximately 20 meters from the main entrance. After clearing disturbed surface deposits, excavation proceeded in 10-centimeter-thick horizontal layers from top to bottom, reaching a maximum depth of approximately 225 cm. The Shanzu Cave mammal fauna includes key members of the “Ailuropoda-Stegodon” Fauna (Ailuropoda melanoleuca baconi, Tapirus augustus, Elephas maximus, Stegodon orientalis). Based on the faunal composition, the Shanzu Cave mammal fauna is restricted to the Late Middle Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene. Additionally, limited uranium-series dating data has been obtained from Shanzu Cave. A geochronological sample from the T1 section of Shanzu Cave, taken 40 cm below the top of the excavation grid, yielded a radiometric age of 126.72±0.61 ka. Based on evidence from the mammal fossil assemblage and radiometric dating, the Shanzu Cave site is preliminarily dated to the Early Late Pleistocene. 179 orangutan tooth fossils excavated from the Shanzu Cave site provide new insights into the taxonomy and evolutionary history of orangutans during a critical but poorly documented period. Metric analyses reveal that the Shanzu Cave teeth are, on average, approximately 18% larger than those of extant Pongo. This size falls within the documented range of variation for P. weidenreichi. Morphologically, the maxillary molars exhibit a high frequency of a well-developed lingual cingulum, a feature consistent with the diagnosis of P. weidenreichi. In contrast, the complexity of enamel folding on the molars is comparable to that observed in extant Pongo. Furthermore, the dental metrics reinforce the hypothesis of a non-linear reduction in dental size of orangutan from the Early to the Late Pleistocene. Following a previously documented size decrease during the Middle Pleistocene, the early Late Pleistocene Shanzu Cave teeth are notably larger than those from Middle Pleistocene localities, yet distinctly smaller than the Late Pleistocene specimens from Yicun Cave in the same region. This pattern argues for a phased pattern of dental size evolution of orangutan during the Pleistocene of southern China.



Three-dimensional enamel thickness of the fourth deciduous premolars in Middle-to-Late Pleistocene Pongo

YI Zhixing, QIU Ruoxuan, WANG Wei, LIAO Wei, LIANG Hua, TIAN Chun, MIERADILI · Tuerxunjiang, ZHANG Yijing, YAO Yanyan

2026, 45(02):  248-257.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0116

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Enamel thickness holds significant implications for studies on primate phylogenetic evolution and dietary adaptations. Previous studies have systematically explored the enamel thickness of permanent teeth in great apes (e.g., Pongo, Gorilla, and Pan), whereas research on deciduous teeth enamel thickness remains relatively limited. Although a recent work has reported two-dimensional (2D) enamel thickness measurements of fossil Pongo deciduous premolars, their three-dimensional (3D) enamel thickness characteristics remain unclear. High-resolution micro-CT data (voxel size: 15.82~23.42 μm) was employed here to conduct a quantitative analysis of the 3D enamel thickness in 16 Middle-to-Late Pleistocene Pongo fourth deciduous premolars (dP4) from Guangxi, consisting of 7 dP⁴s and 9 dP₄s. The enamel thickness results of fossil Pongo were compared with that of human taxa (Java Homo erectus, Middle Pleistocene hominin, Neanderthals, and modern humans) and extant Pongo. Results show that the three enamel thickness indices of dP⁴ are greater than those of dP₄. Specifically, the mean values of 3DAET, 3DRET, and 3DRED for dP⁴ are 0.62 mm (0.54~0.78 mm), 9.74 (8.04~12.92), and 7.62 (7.11~8.35), respectively. The corresponding values for dP₄ are 0.51 mm (0.44~0.65 mm), 7.94 (6.54~10.27), and 7.16 (6.68~7.95), respectively. Statistical analyses also reveal that fossil Pongo exhibits significantly thicker enamel in dP⁴ than in dP₄ (p<0.05). This significant difference is primarily due to the significantly greater enamel volume in dP⁴ compared to dP₄ (p=0.03), whereas it shows no significant correlation with the differences in the enamel-dentine junction area (p=0.92) or dentine volume (p=0.68). Furthermore, according to the 3DRET results, the fossil Pongo dP⁴ can be classified as having thin enamel, whereas the dP₄ falls into the category of hyper-thin enamel. For comparison, the dP4 enamel thickness in human taxa can be classified into various categories, ranging from thin to intermediate thick. Therefore, the 3D enamel thickness of the fossil Pongo dP4 is generally thinner than that of human taxa, which is consistent with the findings in permanent teeth. Finally, the mean 3DAET and mean 3DRET of the extant Pongo dP₄ are 0.41 mm and 7.51, respectively, both of which are lower than the corresponding values in fossil Pongo. While Middle-to-Late Pleistocene Pongo dP4s may exhibit thicker enamel than their extant counterparts, this hypothesis requires further validation with additional data from extant Pongo. The primary data provided in this study are expected to lay a foundation for future comparative researches on 3D enamel thickness in hominid deciduous teeth.



Three-dimensional enamel thickness and bite force of Rudapithecus hungaricus and implications for its dietary adaptation

MENG Ziyang, YANG Yuwei, LIAO Wei, WANG Wei, YI Zhixing

2026, 45(02):  258-267.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0117

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Rudapithecus hungaricus, a late Miocene great ape from Rudabánya, Hungary, is a key taxon for understanding the origin, evolution, and dispersal of Homininae. This species has been hypothesized to be capable of processing hard food items. To test this hypothesis, we conducted three-dimensional analyses of enamel thickness (ET) across eight Rudapithecus teeth (including four premolars and four molars) and estimated bite force (BF) of four molars using μCT data. Two enamel thickness indices were measured: Three-dimensional average enamel thickness (3DAET) and the ratio of enamel-thickness to dentine-thickness (3DRED). According to Chai (2018), we measured dentine horn angle (DHA) and cuspal enamel thickness (CET) to estimate BF. Then we compared the results with that of extant great apes (Pan, Gorilla, and Pongo), including 61 ET measurements and 18 BF estimates. Results reveal that the average ET of Rudapithecus is greater in molars than in premolars. While Rudapithecus is broadly akin to Pan with respect to premolar ET, its molar ET shows a pattern more similar to Pongo. Furthermore, the average molar BF of Rudapithecus is 469.66N, which is larger than that of Pan (353.56 N), smaller than that of Gorilla (1023.06 N), and approximately equal to Pongo (499.62 N). Considering a high similarity between Rudapithecus and Pongo regarding molar ET and molar BF, and previous studies have shown that Pongo can process both tough and hard foods, thus our results support the hypothesis that Rudapithecus had the capability of processing hard foods. However, our results do not necessarily suggest that Rudapithecus had an overall tougher and/or harder diet. Which foods a species have actually eaten depends on a variety of factors such as the food processing capabilities, environmental variability, the accessibility of preferred foods, and the competition with other species. Combined with previous dietary researches, it is possible that the functional significance of thick enamel and great molar BF presented in Rudapithecus is to ensure basic energy intake by processing infrequently-exploited exigent mechanically challenging foods (hard and/or tough foods) during periods of fruit scarcity. To advance the understanding of Rudapithecus feeding ecology, future researches may need to incorporate direct dietary evidence derived from various methods such as phytolith, calcium isotope, and dental chipping analyses.



Plant micro-remains from dental calculus of Gigantopithecus blacki in Liucheng, Guangxi

DU Ruiyan, ZHANG Maolin, GUAN Ying

2026, 45(02):  268-279.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2026.0012

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Gigantopithecus blacki, the largest extinct species within the family Hominidae, provides significant insights into the survival adaptations and extinction of primates. This study focuses on the plant-based dietary evidence of G. blacki from the Gigantopithecus Cave site in Liucheng, Guangxi. Using micro-nano spectral CT analysis, we systematically tested the composition of dental calculus samples attached to the teeth of the only three currently discovered G. blacki mandibles, extracting and analyzing the plant residues within these samples. The results show that the plant microfossils identified in the dental calculus include: starch granules from Poaceae grass seeds, fruits of woody plants, and plant roots and stems; Elongate echinate phytoliths; and tracheary elements from Water Hemlock or fern plants. Additionally, the samples contained ladder-like perforation plates from woody plant stems and reticulate vessels from the phloem of Lardizabalaceae plants. These findings indicate that the diet of G. blacki was highly diverse, covering multiple ecological niches of C₃ plants and providing new evidence for its bamboo consumption behavior. This also suggests its selection of ancient relict plant groups, offering new perspectives on the ecological relationship between large primates and ancient plant communities.

In summary, although the G. blacki specimens from the Liucheng Gigantopithecus Cave site date back approximately 1.2 to 0.9 million years, dental calculus on some of the teeth retained sufficient plant residue information to support further dietary reconstruction. This study combines micro-nano spectral CT and plant residue extraction techniques, enabling rapid compositional assessment of calculus samples, thus providing a novel approach for future research on fossilized dental calculus samples that are difficult to distinguish visually. Future research should expand along both temporal and spatial dimensions: temporally, by analyzing G. blacki dental fossil samples from different geological periods, comparing the differences in plant community composition across these periods, and exploring whether its diet adapted to changes in paleoclimate and paleovegetation, thereby providing dietary evidence for understanding the evolutionary dynamics of G. blacki; spatially, considering the current distribution of G. blacki fossils across Guangxi, Hubei, Chongqing, Guizhou, and Hainan, future comparative studies of regional samples could analyze whether geographical isolation led to regional dietary differentiation, investigate the impact of different regional paleoenvironments on its diet, and refine the study of G. blacki’s ecological distribution and adaptation patterns. This would provide a more comprehensive ecological perspective for exploring the diet and extinction of Gigantopithecus blacki.

Research Articles



Micro-CT techniques and bone histology in zooarchaeology

HOU yishan, ZHANG Yue, ZHANG Shuangquan

2026, 45(02):  280-295.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0058

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Osseous artifacts are significant faunal remains discovered in archaeological sites, providing important understanding of the economic and social behavior of Palaeolithic hominins. Over the past decades, research on bone tools has primarily focused on identifying use-traces to infer their past function, using the principle of tribology. Although use-wear can develop relatively quickly, this method has certain limitations. Most tools pass through a stage of indistinct polish before sufficient use-wear traces build up to allow for accurate identification of contact material or function. Moreover, tools with the same function and contact material may look different depending on use time. Many bone points for example, including awls and hunting points, may develop rounding along the tip and edges making identification of specific function difficult. Additionally, little attention paid to ascertaining the type of bone tissue and animal taxa represented by the bone implements, beyond the general size class of animal. This is because most bone tools recovered from archaeological excavations are so pervasively modified that it is impossible to identify the type of animal from which they were made based on standard skeletal morphological markers. These limitations have, to some extent, restricted deeper insights into prehistoric human behavior, culture development, and the functional interpretations of bone and antler artifacts. In recent years, researchers have begun integrating histological analysis with micro-computed tomography (Micro-CT) into the study of osseous artifacts, leading to significant advancements. The combination of Micro-CT and histology allows for non-destructive examination of internal bone microstructures, offering new perspectives on stress-related damage occasioned through use in various activities. Particularly in cases where surface fractures or use-wear are absent, internal stress-related damage such as microcracks and fatigue fractures can be detected, offering new evidence for identifying the function of bone tools, particularly those potentially used for high-impact activities like hunting. Furthermore, histological analysis enables a deeper investigation into prehistoric material selection strategies in bone tool manufacture. This includes determining whether animal species were preferred, or whether bones with varying hardness and density were selected for different functional purposes. Such insights not only reflect the cognitive and resource management strategies of prehistoric humans but also provide evidence for the cultural, symbolic, and economic significance of particular animal species within their cultural contexts. This study systematically reviews recent applications of Micro-CT technology and histological methods in osseous artifacts, providing a detailed discussion of the formation mechanisms of internal bone microfractures and their relationship to stress responses. The combination of micro-CT and histological techniques not only enhances the accuracy of functional interpretations of bone artifacts but also opens new avenues for understanding prehistoric technological practices and resource selection strategies.



Determining gender based on the images of human barefoot footprints

YAO Li, LUO Zhen, GE Heng, MA Xiaoyun, LIN Zhehan

2026, 45(02):  296-309.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0024

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To explore the correlation between barefoot footprints and human gender, this study proposes a gender analysis model based on a Back Propagation (BP) neural network optimized by genetic algorithms. The model integrates footprint morphology, biomechanical principles, and traditional footprint analysis theories. A total of 500 barefoot footprint images from healthy subjects aged 20-30 were collected. These images underwent preprocessing using MATLAB software, including denoising, enhancement, binarization, and edge detection, followed by the extraction of 54 features encompassing grayscale distribution, geometric characteristics, and morphological parameters. Genetic algorithms were employed to select the optimal feature subset, identifying seven key discriminative features such as heel-to-ball distance (d_FT6), barefoot ball width (d_S1S2), and barefoot length (d_OP).

The optimized BP neural network classifier achieved an average accuracy of 84.34% in gender classification, significantly outperforming traditional BP networks (70.10%), logistic regression (75.62%), and support vector machines (78.94%). The analysis revealed that features like heel-to-ball distance and barefoot ball width exhibited strong sexual dimorphism, aligning with anatomical differences between genders. For instance, males generally displayed larger heel-to-ball distances and wider ball regions compared to females. Additionally, geometric features such as the rectangularity and aspect ratio of the metatarsal-arch-heel region further contributed to classification accuracy, reflecting structural variations in footprint morphology.

Statistical significance tests (e.g., t-tests and Mann-Whitney U tests) confirmed that the selected features demonstrated significant gender-related differences (p≤0.05), with high effect sizes (Cohen’s d>0.5) for critical parameters. Notably, while some statistical features (e.g., probability density functions) lacked individual significance, their nonlinear interactions within the neural network enhanced overall model performance. This highlights the importance of feature synergy in machine learning-based classification.

The study underscores the feasibility of applying artificial neural networks to footprint analysis, particularly in forensic contexts. The genetic algorithm’s ability to optimize feature selection and network parameters improved model robustness and generalization, addressing limitations of traditional methods that rely on linear assumptions or manual feature engineering. However, challenges remain, including sample homogeneity and potential errors in ink-based footprint acquisition. Future work should expand datasets to include diverse age groups, refine feature extraction techniques (e.g., incorporating pressure distribution data), and develop integrated software tools for real-world forensic applications.

In conclusion, this research advances the automation and objectivity of footprint-based gender analysis, offering both academic insights and practical value for criminal investigations. By bridging biomechanics, computer vision, and evolutionary computation, the proposed framework demonstrates the potential of machine learning in decoding complex biological patterns embedded in human footprints.



Dermatoglyphic phenome of the Mongolian people in Inner Mongolia

ZHEN Wentian, ZHANG Haiguo, YANG Haitao, TAN Jingze, QIAO Hui, YUAN Ziyu, ZANG Jun, YAN Mingliang, WANG Jiucun

2026, 45(02):  310-321.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0043

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Dermatoglyphics, formed by the raised ridge patterns on the skin surface, play a crucial role in personal identification, population genetics, and disease diagnosis. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of soleprint phenotypes in the Mongolian population. Additionally, a comprehensive analysis of dermatoglyphic patterns in this population is presented, encompassing frequency distributions and combination characteristics across genders and bilateral sides. Specifically, we examined: 1) fingerprint patterns categorized as simple arch, tented arch, radial loop, ulnar loop, simple whorl, and double whorl; 2) palmprint phenotypes including the pattern in the thenar, hypothenar, interdigital regions II, III, IV, and their transitional regions (II/III, III/IV), along with the prevalence of simian lines, triple radial base lines, cdt triradius; 3) soleprint phenotypes in interdigital regions II, III, and IV, along with patterns observed in the hallucal region, hypothenar region, and calcar region. Our analysis in Mongolian population revealed distinct dermatoglyphic pattern distributions across different fingers: double whorl exhibited higher frequency in thumbs, radial loop predominated in index fingers, ulnar loop showed increased prevalence in middle and little fingers, and simple whorl were more common in ring fingers. Bilateral symmetry was observed in homologous fingers, demonstrating a significant tendency for pattern concordance. The pentadactyl pattern combinations exhibited non-random distribution characteristics. Regarding palmprint configurations, the highest frequency of true patterns was observed in interdigital region IV. Soleprint analysis indicated a predominance of loop pattern on the hallucal region, with arch patterns showing relatively lower frequency. Through cluster analysis and principal component analysis of 39 Chinese ethnic groups with complete soleprint phenotypes, we have identified three distinct population clusters: Southern, Northern, and Central Asian groups, based on dermatoglyphic phenotypes. Intra-site phenotypic correlation analysis demonstrated significant associations between fingerprint patterns, as well as between true patterns in palmprint and soleprint interdigital regions. Cross-site analysis revealed a strong positive correlation between total fingerprint ridge count (TFRC) and palm a-b ridge count (a-b RC), suggesting that populations with higher TFRC tend to exhibit increased ridge counts in the a-b interdigital region. Furthermore, significant correlations were identified between palmar and plantar interdigital regions, with palm interdigital regions showing the highest frequency of true pattern occurrence. These interregional associations warrant further investigation as potential focal points for future research. Notably, soleprint demonstrate significant diagnostic value, contributing up to 25% of the discriminative information in specific disease identification. This study not only fills the gap in the study of Mongolian soleprints, but also provides a theoretical basis for the application of dermatoglyphics in individual identification, population discriminant, and auxiliary diagnosis of diseases.



Skinfold thickness and body composition of the Dong adults in Hunan

WANG Qimeng, QIN Dabao, ZHANG Huijuan, DENG xiang, HUANG Dayuan

2026, 45(02):  322-332.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0021

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In this project, anthropometric measurement was used to measure the height, body weight and four skinfold thickness of 749 Hunan Dong adults (304 males and 445 females), and body density, body fat percentage, fat mass, fat mass index, lean body mass and lean body mass index were calculated according to the formula. The results showed that both men and women of the Dong ethnic group had the thinnest thickness of the medial skinfold of the calf and the thickest thickness of the anterior superior iliac spinous skinfold. The thickness of the trunk skinfold in males is higher than that of the extremities; Except for the subscapular skinfold and anterior superior iliac spinous skinfold in the 20-year-old group, the thickness of each skinfold in women was significantly higher than that in men at all ages, and the difference was statistically significant. In each age group, the body density, lean body mass and lean body mass index values of males were higher than those of females, and the values of body fat percentage, fat mass and fat mass index were lower than those of females. With the increase of age, the thickness of the four skinfolds, body fat percentage, fat mass and lean body mass values of Dong males gradually decreased, and the body density value gradually increased. In women, triceps skinfold, subscapular skinfold, anterior superior iliac spinous skinfold, body fat percentage, body mass index, fat mass and fat mass index, lean body mass and lean body mass index increased first and then decreased, body density decreased first and then increased, and the thickness of the inner calf skinfold generally showed a decreasing trend. Compared with the other 21 ethnic groups in China, the triceps skinfold, subscapular skinfold and anterior superior iliac spinous skinfold of Dong men were relatively thick, while the medial calf skinfold was at a moderately thick level. The thickness of the anterior superior iliac spinous fold in Dong women was thicker, and the thickness of the other three skinfolds was at the moderate to thick level. The skinfold characteristics of males and females of the Dong ethnic group in Hunan were similar to those of the Mongolian Dulbert tribe, the Xinjiang Mongolian Chahar tribe, and the Xinjiang Mongolian Turgat tribe, and had the characteristics of the southern ethnic group. The fat development level and obesity level of Dong men were higher than those of Tujia men, and the fat development level of women was relatively close.



Sexual dimorphism of cephalofacial dimensions of the population in Taiwan, China

DU Baopu, DU Jing

2026, 45(02):  333-344.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0026

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The distribution of sexual dimorphism in cephalofacial traits among the population in Taiwan, China, has not been comprehensively understood yet. In this study, we selected 13 cephalometric dimensions to calculate the sexual dimorphism index (I_sd) for 43 populations in Taiwan, China, and subsequently compared them with 131 Chinese mainland populations. Among these 43 populations, the Gaoshan ethnic group included 7 Ami populations, 11 Atayal populations, 3 Bunun populations, 7 Paiwan populations, 1 Panapanayan population, 2 Rukai populations, 1 Tsou population, and 9 Pingpu populations, while the Han ethnic group comprised 1 Minnan population and 1 Waisheng population. This study further investigated the correlations between the I_sd and sexual stature dimorphism index, as well as geographical and climatic factors. The results revealed a substantial range of variability in the I_sd for cephalofacial traits among residents in Taiwan, China. Among the Gaoshan populations, nasal width, nasal height, morphological facial height, bigonial breadth, and physiognomic ear breadth exhibited higher sexual dimorphism (6%≤I_sd<9%), physiognomic ear length, physiognomic facial height, mouth breadth, face breadth, head length, and auricular height exhibited moderate sexual dimorphism (3%≤I_sd<6%), and minimum frontal breadth and interocular breadth displayed lower sexual dimorphism (0<I_sd< 3%). In addition, the I_sd of all cephalofacial traits among residents in Taiwan, China, ranged from 4% to 6%. Notably, the Ami, Atayal, Bunun, and Tsou populations demonstrated higher sexual dimorphism in all cephalofacial traits compared to the Panapanayan and Waisheng populations. Cluster analysis showed that the Ami, Atayal, Bunun, Paiwan, and Pingpu populations from the Kaohsiung area clustered together preferentially. Compared with other ethnic groups, the I_sd of all cephalofacial traits of the Gaoshan populations was closely similar to those of the Northern Han and ethnic groups but differed significantly from those of the Southern Han and ethnic groups. Additionally, the I_sd for certain cephalofacial traits showed significant linear correlations with the sexual stature dimorphism index and geographical-climatic factors. The I_sd for head length, auricular height, face breadth, bigonial breadth, and mouth breadth showed weak positive linear correlations with the sexual stature dimorphism index. Canonical correlation analysis revealed that physiognomic ear breadth had stronger associations with the annual mean relative humidity and annual sunshine time, while bigonial breadth and mouth breadth had more robust relationships with broader environmental conditions. The distribution of sexual dimorphism in cephalofacial traits among residents in Taiwan, China, is related to the combined effects of sexual selection and geo-climatic environments. This study is of great significance for understanding the sexual dimorphism of physical traits among Chinese populations and their related influencing factors.

Excavation / Investigation Reports



Report of the 2023 excavation at the Longgupo site, Wushan, Chongqing

LIAO Ruxue, FU Yu, WANG Tengfei, ZHAO Xiongwei, ZHANG Qian, CHEN Yanyi, CHEN Shaokun, HAN Fei, WU Yan, HU Xin, NIU Wenyuan, WEI Xuan, HUANG Xianfeng, HUANG Wanbo, LI Yinghua

2026, 45(02):  345-357.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0057

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The Longgupo site in Wushan, Chongqing, is one of the early human sites that has received widespread attention both at home and abroad. The site was first discovered in 1984 and has undergone four seasons totaling 12 times of excavations since 1985. The first season (1985-1988) initially aimed at mammalian fossils, while after the discovery of a controversial hominid jawbone fragment that sparked debate over its classification, the focus shifted to excavating it as a cultural site. Consequently, the excavation method was adjusted to dig and record according to horizontal layers, and 120 species of vertebrate fossils including 116 species of mammalian fossils, 14 Gigantopithecus teeth, and 2 stone artifacts were found. The second season of excavation (1997-1998) paid more attention to cultural clues that might be related to human activities, leading to the discovery of over 20 stone artifacts. The third season (2003-2006), a joint excavation by China and France, resulted in the discovery of 845 stone artifacts, one Gigantopithecus tooth, over 1000 vertebrate fossils, and two accumulations of mammalian limb bone fossils with suspected artificial marks over the four years of excavations. The fourth season (2011-2012) was led by the Chongqing China Three Gorges Museum, discovering 206 stone artifacts and 178 mammalian fossils, which focused more on stratigraphic accumulation and stratigraphic division.

After an interval of 11 years, the fifth season was launched in 2023 by the Chongqing China Three Gorges Museum, the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Wuhan University, etc., resulting in the discovery of 146 pieces of well-characterized stone artifacts and 519 pieces of mammalian fossils.The stone artifacts were mainly made of the Triassic limestones distributed around the site. The types include scrapers, choppers, picks, points, flakes, etc., with the scrapers and choppers being the most remarkable ones. Mammalian fossils are dominated by large and medium-sized mammals, including Carnivora, Proboscidea, Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, etc., and the extinct species account for 94.44% of the total, indicating that the age is early Early Pleistocene. The preliminary results of speleothem samples in the upper layers of the site yield the age from the late Middle Pleistocene to the early Late Pleistocene, which suggests that there may be younger layers in the upper part of the site that are mixed with early mammalian fossils. This provides new evidence for further clarification of some key issues including the site formation process, stratigraphic sequences and lithological characteristics, anthropic nature of stone artifacts and their technological features, biological evolutionary background, and sedimentary chronological sequences of the Longgupo site.



An excavation report of the Xichengshan Localities 1 and 2, Yangcheng, Shanxi

SONG Yanhua, WU Mengyao, WU Yang, GUO Junliang, MA Feng, ZHANG Jianjun, WU Xiaohong, GUO Yujie

2026, 45(02):  358-371.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0060

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The Xichengshan site is an open-air Paleolithic site located in the karst depression at the top of the Xichengshan Mountain, about 35 km southwest of Yangcheng County, Shanxi Province, North China. Stone artifacts characteristic of microlith were discovered in 2006 during the scenery spot exploitation. In 2020, a trial excavation was carried out by the School of History of Beijing Normal University, revealing the human activities with “core and flake” technology by the Niangniangchi lake (the only retained lake now) in early Upper Paleolithic Age (45590±510 BP cal, 95.4%, MIS 3). To find more information about microlith, new fieldwork was conducted by School of Archaeology and Museology of Shanxi University, Yangcheng County Museum of Cultural relics and Jincheng Cultural Relics Protection Center in Summer 2022.

New survey found a universal distribution of microlith along the shore of ancient lakes in the karst depression. Locality 1 (XCS 1, 112°12′28″E, 35°21′00″N; 1701.943±3 m above sea level) and Locality 2 (XCS 2, 112°12′27″E, 35°21′00″N; 1708.111±2.4 m above sea level) are situated in the overflow port of the karst depression. The deposition and AMS¹⁴C data of charcoal samples showed the well developed and overflow of the underground water, forming the typical karst topography of clints and grikes at the bottom of Locality 1 and Locality 2 at least before 28 ka BP cal. XCS 1 located in the mid-part of the slope, with excavated areas of 8 m², demonstrating 6 strata, and XCS 2, very bottom of the slope, 4 m², 5 strata.

Totally 494 stone artifacts (without any animal bones) unearthed from the two localities can be divided into two stages according to the process of sedimentation and AMS¹⁴C and OSL data. In early stage in lower cultural horizon dating to ca. 28 ka BP cal, totally 35 artifacts form Layer 4, mucky clay of XCS 1, can be identified as stocks (1/35; 2.86%), flakes (20/35; 57.14%), chunks (10/35; 28.57%), chips (3/35; 8.57%) and tools (1/35; 2.86%). In late stage in upper cultural horizon after ca. 7.7 ka BP cal, a total of 459 artifacts transported from higher ground are identified as stocks (3/459; 0.65%), cores (4/459; 0.87%), microcores (5/459; 1.09%), flakes (171/459; 37.25%), microblades (40/459; 8.71%), chunks (173/459; 37.69%), chips (46/459; 10.02%) and tools (17/459; 3.70%). All the assemblages are dominated by flakes and chunks produced by hard or soft hammer percussion, occasionally anvil (bipolar) percussion. The microblade technology emerged in upper cultural horizon. Several flakes, chunks and microblades were used with clear microwear observed along used edges. The microcores are all boat-shaped ones. The tools are characteristic by small-sized compound tools, such as points, scrapers, end-scrapers, burins, denticulated tools, small bifacial tools, and some small flake-blanked, bladelet-blanked and microblade-blanked tools.

The raw materials are mainly local flint (431/494, 87.25%, including 404 black flints), with some quartz (58/494, 11.74%), crystal (3/494, 0.61%) and quartzite (2/494, 0.40%). Field investigation showed the source of black flint mainly in the Ordovician outcrops around the Yangcheng county 30 km northeast of Xichengshan site. The high-quality black flint mines, located at village Tulouzhuang, Xiacun, Yanggaoquan etc., were exploited early from Ming-Qing Dynasty to modern times. The black flint also exposed in northwest (Xiaojianshan and Suoquanling village), northeast (Hebei town) and northeast of Xichengshan karst depression, but the quality is inferior with joints. So the ancient human could have exploited the fine flint mainly farther away from the site. The specific source of other types of stone raw material remains to be investigated.

Given all these, Xichengshan site is a key activity area with high altitude among early microlithic people, and it is of great significance for the study of the migration of prehistoric people in the Late Pleistocene and their adaptation to the higher altitude area.



The 2015 excavation of the Nanjiagou Paleolithic site in Huailai Basin

XUE Feng, NIU Dongwei, LI Dingyuan

2026, 45(02):  372-386.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0031

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The Nanjiagou Paleolithic site, located in Huailai County of Hebei Province, is a newly discovered and excavated site in North China. The site is situated in the Xinyao Village, Sangyuan Town and buried in the front margin of the second terrace on the right bank of the Yongding River. In September 2015, a joint archaeological team conducted a small-scale test excavation at the site. The excavation exposed one cultural layer with an area of about 10 m². An ash-heap and a total of 953 stone specimens, 355 animal fossils (including 1 ostrich eggshell and 3 ornaments), burned bones, a large amounts of lithic debris, as well as bone fragments were unearthed. The existing AMS ¹⁴C dating indicate that the age of this site is 17 ka~16 ka cal. BP, which also puts the site to the late stage of Upper Paleolithic in North China. The general features lithic assemblage include: 1) The raw materials for stone artifacts were mainly quarried from the gravel layers around the site, while a small amount of high-quality volcanic breccia may have been transported from a distance, and dolomite, siliceous limestone, and lava dominate the rock type; 2) The categories of 950 lithic assemblages include simple cores (n=4; 0.4%), microblade cores (n=50; 5.3%), simple flakes (n=604; 63.6%), microblades (n=86; 9.1%), bipolar flakes (n=3; 0.3%), retouched tools (n=61; 6.4%), chunks (n=142; 14.9%) with small in size. 3) The simple cores were made by direct hammer percussion and most flakes were produced from non-cortical platforms (96.4%) which indicating that they are mostly secondary flake products. All the microblade cores are wedge-shaped cores, with small size, and their refitted groups discovered at Nanjiagou site can reflect the technological procedure of knapping strategy. Some scholars divided wedge-shaped cores into four stages based on their production procedures and degree: prepared, flaking, suspended, and exhausted. The microblade cores and their refitted groups discovered at Nanjiagou site can reflect the technological process of these three stages. 4) The retouched tools are mostly made of chert which can be classified into scrapers, notches, endscrapers, bifacial points, adze-shaped tools, and choppers. There are also cases of using debris and gravel to produce stone tools, as well as reworking waste wedge-shaped cores into tools. Most of animal fossils are in poor condition and the fauna assemblage includes Cervus sp., Equus sp., Aves, Antilopinae, Rodentia, Carnivora and Bovidae, etc. It can be inferred that the discovery of the Nanjiagou site make great significance for improving the evolutionary sequence of lithic technology and systematically exploring the diversity of human survival behaviors during the late Upper Pleistocene in the Huailai Basin even North China.

Reviews



A brief analysis on raw material used for Paleolithic personal ornaments

WEI Yi

2026, 45(02):  387-402.  doi:10.16359/j.1000-3193/AAS.2025.0007

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Personal ornaments were an essential aspect of Paleolithic material culture, offering valuable insights into human cognition, behavioral modernity, and cultural evolution. The study of personal ornaments often emphasizes the selection and use of raw materials, which form the foundation for interpreting their meaning and significance. Raw material analysis not only establishes a starting point for understanding personal ornaments but also plays a critical role in broader theoretical and methodological discussions. Paleolithic personal ornaments are manufactured from a range of raw materials, including shells, animal bones, animal teeth, minerals, fossils, and ostrich eggshells. The selection and usage of these raw materials differed across regions and periods, reflecting both shared practices and their unique variations. This paper provides a comprehensive review of raw material choices for Paleolithic personal ornaments, focusing on patterns observed across different regions and timeframes. This analysis aims to reveal how material selection was influenced by both practical considerations and cultural traditions. The choice of raw materials for personal ornaments was influenced by a variety of factors, including appearance, durability, portability, workability, accessibility, acquisition cost, and the expectations for the finished product. Durability and portability were inherent qualities required for personal ornaments to withstand prolonged use and transportation. However, practical factors like accessibility, acquisition cost, and workability, were often influenced by cultural traditions, which played a significant role in shaping raw material preferences in the case of early non-utilitarian artifacts such as personal ornaments. This paper argues that cultural traditions were likely the most influential factor in determining the selection of raw materials for Paleolithic personal ornaments among early human groups. This study also examines raw materials used in personal ornament from northern China during the Late Pleistocene. It suggests that the variations in raw material types found on either side of the 112°E longitude likely reflect differences in the cultural preferences or social traditions among distinct groups. These variations confirmed what declared above that raw material selections were deeply rooted in the symbolic or aesthetic values of different communities. As the database of Paleolithic archaeological sites continues to expand and become more detailed, research on raw materials for personal ornaments is expected to offer even deeper insights. Such studies have the potential to enhance our understanding of the behavioral patterns, cultural traditions, and social structures of ancient human populations. By exploring the relationship between material culture and human evolution, these investigations will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the cultural and cognitive advancements among Paleolithic populations.