Abstract:

Entheseal changes and the cross-sectional geometry of long bone diaphyses have emerged as the most widely used skeletal markers in bioarchaeology for reconstructing the activity patterns of ancient populations. This study examines entheseal change patterns and limb bone morphological characteristics in a mortuary population excavated from the Ming-Qing Dynasty Wenchi Cemetery. Comparative analyses were conducted from three perspectives: between males and females, and between females with and without footbinding.

The results are as follows: 1) Correlation analysis between entheseal changes and indicators of age and body size revealed that age is the primary factor influencing entheseal changes, whereas body size is not significantly associated with their degree; 2) High levels of entheseal changes were observed in males, as well as in older and larger-bodied individuals; 3) Males exhibited greater entheseal robustness and more pronounced entheseal changes, indicating that they undertook heavier activity loads; 4) A clear sexual division of labor is evident within the Wenchi population: females were more likely to engage in production activities relying primarily on repetitive upper limb movements, while males’ daily labor not only centered on upper limb activities but also demanded higher weight-bearing capacity of the lower limbs and waist; 5) Females participated in household production activities regardless of whether they had bound feet.

By integrating skeletal evidence with the geographical environment, mineral resource distribution, and historical records from Yu County, the production activities of the Wenchi population during the Ming and Qing Dynasties can be further inferred. The enhanced musculoskeletal development of the shoulders, elbows, forearms, and feet in males can be attributed to the frequent use of upper limb movements—such as extension, flexion, pronation, supination, and lifting—in coal mining and iron smelting, as well as the frequent mechanical stress on the feet during coal transportation. In addition to farming, males in Wenchi may have engaged in handicraft production activities such as coal mining and iron smelting during their leisure time.

For females, the musculoskeletal characteristics—including increased extension and flexion of the acromioclavicular and elbow joints, coupled with lower intensity of lower-limb activity—suggest their possible participation in textile production. The rapid development of the cotton textile industry in Shanxi Province during the Ming and Qing Dynasties provides supporting evidence for the daily labor activities of Wenchi females. Both females with and without footbinding were involved in textile work and agricultural production as part of the household production system.

Key words: Ancient populations, skeletal morphology, entheseal changes, activity pattern